1 00:00:00,867 --> 00:00:02,867 [Ronan] The badlands of Wyoming, 2 00:00:02,000 --> 00:00:07,000 Downloaded from YTS.MX 3 00:00:02,867 --> 00:00:05,000 the heart of the Old West, 4 00:00:05,000 --> 00:00:07,000 hidden in these remote canyons 5 00:00:07,000 --> 00:00:09,467 is a prehistoric murder scene. 6 00:00:08,000 --> 00:00:13,000 Official YIFY movies site: YTS.MX 7 00:00:09,467 --> 00:00:12,166 [Phil] I have never seen anything like this in my whole career, 8 00:00:12,166 --> 00:00:14,166 and I've been studying dinosaurs a long time. 9 00:00:15,166 --> 00:00:18,367 [Ronan] In this single square mile of desert, 10 00:00:18,367 --> 00:00:23,166 lie the remains of at least a dozen dinosaur giants, 11 00:00:23,166 --> 00:00:24,734 including their footprints... 12 00:00:24,734 --> 00:00:27,100 -What do they eat? -...their food... 13 00:00:27,100 --> 00:00:28,100 [cooing] 14 00:00:28,100 --> 00:00:30,000 ...and signs of a brutal, bloody showdown 15 00:00:30,000 --> 00:00:31,734 ...and signs of a brutal, bloody showdown 16 00:00:31,734 --> 00:00:34,100 between some of the biggest creatures 17 00:00:34,100 --> 00:00:36,000 that ever walked the planet. 18 00:00:37,700 --> 00:00:40,467 [Phil] It's the whole package on the Jurassic world. 19 00:00:40,467 --> 00:00:42,000 If you want to open up the curtains, 20 00:00:42,000 --> 00:00:43,600 look back in time and say, 21 00:00:43,600 --> 00:00:45,600 "What did the Jurassic look like?" 22 00:00:45,600 --> 00:00:47,700 This is where you come. 23 00:00:47,700 --> 00:00:51,100 [Ronan] Now, with this unprecedented body of evidence, 24 00:00:51,100 --> 00:00:53,467 a crack team of world-class scientists 25 00:00:53,467 --> 00:00:57,700 is carrying out an epic crime scene investigation. 26 00:00:57,700 --> 00:00:59,734 Kind of the... the ultimate smoking gun. 27 00:00:59,734 --> 00:01:00,000 It always puts the animal at the scene of the crime. 28 00:01:00,000 --> 00:01:02,533 It always puts the animal at the scene of the crime. 29 00:01:03,500 --> 00:01:07,066 [Ronan] To solve a 150-million-year-old mystery... 30 00:01:08,367 --> 00:01:11,734 Why did so many dinosaurs die here? 31 00:01:28,700 --> 00:01:30,000 [Ronan] The dinosaur dig site is an hour by truck 32 00:01:30,000 --> 00:01:31,634 [Ronan] The dinosaur dig site is an hour by truck 33 00:01:31,634 --> 00:01:33,266 from the nearest town. 34 00:01:33,266 --> 00:01:35,533 It's called the Jurassic Mile. 35 00:01:36,634 --> 00:01:38,700 And its location is so secret, 36 00:01:38,700 --> 00:01:42,000 it's known only to a handful of paleontologists. 37 00:01:42,000 --> 00:01:44,367 [woman] [indistinct] 38 00:01:46,867 --> 00:01:47,800 [Victoria] Welcome, guys. 39 00:01:47,800 --> 00:01:50,367 I think we got a pretty good game plan for today. 40 00:01:50,367 --> 00:01:53,100 So, Taylor, safety, weather. 41 00:01:53,100 --> 00:01:56,166 On site, it's gonna be about 110 degrees Fahrenheit. 42 00:01:56,166 --> 00:01:58,467 If you got to work for five and take a 10-minute break, 43 00:01:58,467 --> 00:02:00,000 the dinosaurs have been here for millions of years. 44 00:02:00,000 --> 00:02:01,367 the dinosaurs have been here for millions of years. 45 00:02:01,367 --> 00:02:03,066 They can last 10 more minutes. 46 00:02:04,166 --> 00:02:07,266 [Ronan] This remote corner of the Wild West is a harsh 47 00:02:07,266 --> 00:02:09,066 and inhospitable place. 48 00:02:11,367 --> 00:02:13,467 Extreme summers and brutal winters 49 00:02:13,467 --> 00:02:15,467 mean there's just a tiny window, 50 00:02:15,467 --> 00:02:17,266 when people can work out here. 51 00:02:19,000 --> 00:02:21,066 We have a relatively short dig season, 52 00:02:21,066 --> 00:02:22,867 about six to eight weeks usually, 53 00:02:22,867 --> 00:02:25,166 and that is mostly due to Mother Nature. 54 00:02:25,166 --> 00:02:26,367 And it's wet out here. 55 00:02:26,367 --> 00:02:29,467 The roads become impassable and then extreme heat too. 56 00:02:31,467 --> 00:02:32,967 [Ronan] But since 2017, 57 00:02:32,967 --> 00:02:35,000 an international team of scientists, 58 00:02:35,000 --> 00:02:38,266 led by The Children's Museum of Indianapolis 59 00:02:38,266 --> 00:02:40,166 has endured the summer heat. 60 00:02:42,367 --> 00:02:45,266 Intent on peeling back the layers of rock, 61 00:02:45,266 --> 00:02:47,467 inch by inch... 62 00:02:47,467 --> 00:02:51,367 To reveal a lost world, when today's arid desert 63 00:02:51,367 --> 00:02:54,233 was covered by lush Jurassic Forest. 64 00:02:58,600 --> 00:03:00,000 [Ronan] The Jurassic Mile lies within a vast rock bed 65 00:03:00,000 --> 00:03:02,000 [Ronan] The Jurassic Mile lies within a vast rock bed 66 00:03:02,000 --> 00:03:04,500 called the Morrison Formation, 67 00:03:04,500 --> 00:03:07,600 which spans 12 Western states 68 00:03:07,600 --> 00:03:09,266 and is one of the richest deposits 69 00:03:09,266 --> 00:03:11,867 of dinosaur fossils on Earth. 70 00:03:11,867 --> 00:03:15,967 Nestled in the far north of Wyoming's Bighorn Basin, 71 00:03:15,967 --> 00:03:19,634 it's a one-of-a-kind sight, even for seasoned experts. 72 00:03:23,467 --> 00:03:27,967 So far, over 3000 bones have been unearthed, 73 00:03:27,967 --> 00:03:30,000 including skeletons of 10 sauropods, 74 00:03:30,000 --> 00:03:31,500 including skeletons of 10 sauropods, 75 00:03:31,500 --> 00:03:35,734 remains of at least five predatory allosauruses, 76 00:03:35,734 --> 00:03:37,900 and parts of a Stegosaurus. 77 00:03:41,367 --> 00:03:44,166 This year, the team is unearthing so many fossils 78 00:03:44,166 --> 00:03:46,100 that it's struggled to keep on. 79 00:03:50,266 --> 00:03:53,500 [Jennifer] This site is the gift that keeps on giving. 80 00:03:53,500 --> 00:03:56,500 We've got large theropod coming out over there. 81 00:03:56,500 --> 00:04:00,000 We've got this very exciting, articulated tail 82 00:04:00,000 --> 00:04:00,100 We've got this very exciting, articulated tail 83 00:04:00,100 --> 00:04:02,066 from a sauropod coming over here. 84 00:04:04,367 --> 00:04:06,967 [Ronan] Paleontologist, Dr. Jennifer Anne 85 00:04:06,967 --> 00:04:08,333 manages the dig site. 86 00:04:15,367 --> 00:04:17,600 [Jennifer] As you can see, it's all hands on deck. 87 00:04:17,600 --> 00:04:18,634 There's a lot of pressure 88 00:04:18,634 --> 00:04:20,533 to get done as much as possible. 89 00:04:20,533 --> 00:04:21,867 You really want to see what's there. 90 00:04:21,867 --> 00:04:23,634 You want to get it out of the ground. 91 00:04:23,634 --> 00:04:27,266 [Ronan] But digging up fragile fossils is a gamble. 92 00:04:27,266 --> 00:04:30,000 After 150 million years in their safe, 93 00:04:30,000 --> 00:04:30,500 After 150 million years in their safe, 94 00:04:30,500 --> 00:04:31,867 rocky tomb, 95 00:04:31,867 --> 00:04:34,367 every bone is at the mercy of the elements 96 00:04:34,367 --> 00:04:35,900 from the moment it's exposed. 97 00:04:37,867 --> 00:04:40,266 Wyoming's wild weather could destroy 98 00:04:40,266 --> 00:04:42,467 vital clues in a matter of days. 99 00:04:51,967 --> 00:04:55,367 The day has barely begun for Prof. Phil Manning, 100 00:04:55,367 --> 00:04:58,867 one of the lead scientists here, 101 00:04:58,867 --> 00:05:00,000 and he's already been called 102 00:05:00,000 --> 00:05:00,467 and he's already been called 103 00:05:00,467 --> 00:05:03,000 to check out a potential new dinosaur. 104 00:05:05,867 --> 00:05:06,967 [Phil] What have you got? 105 00:05:06,967 --> 00:05:09,100 So, I was cleaning up the wall 106 00:05:09,100 --> 00:05:11,000 for the stratigraphic column 107 00:05:11,000 --> 00:05:13,634 and found this nice big limb bone right here-- 108 00:05:13,634 --> 00:05:14,867 [Phil] Ooh. 109 00:05:14,867 --> 00:05:16,233 Can I have that? 110 00:05:18,367 --> 00:05:19,500 Wow. 111 00:05:19,500 --> 00:05:20,600 [man] It's a bit cracked-- 112 00:05:20,600 --> 00:05:22,900 Oh, it's going into that, it's going in, it's going in. 113 00:05:24,100 --> 00:05:26,000 [Ronan] Another bone means another chance 114 00:05:26,000 --> 00:05:30,000 to solve the mystery of why so many dinosaurs died here. 115 00:05:30,000 --> 00:05:30,467 to solve the mystery of why so many dinosaurs died here. 116 00:05:30,467 --> 00:05:32,266 [Phil] Some sites you find bones. 117 00:05:32,266 --> 00:05:33,634 Some you find tracks, 118 00:05:33,634 --> 00:05:35,166 and some you find fossil plants 119 00:05:35,166 --> 00:05:38,100 or other creatures that lived at the time of the dinosaurs. 120 00:05:39,166 --> 00:05:40,533 Here, you find everything. 121 00:05:41,467 --> 00:05:44,166 That's what makes this site so important. 122 00:05:45,700 --> 00:05:47,533 [Ronan] First question for Phil. 123 00:05:47,533 --> 00:05:50,900 What kind of dinosaur did this bone belong to? 124 00:05:51,967 --> 00:05:53,266 Well, it, it's definitely a limb bone. 125 00:05:53,266 --> 00:05:54,967 -[woman] Yeah. -There's no question on that. 126 00:05:54,967 --> 00:05:56,100 And it's from a big animal. 127 00:05:56,100 --> 00:05:59,467 So judging by the... the depth and the size of this, 128 00:05:59,467 --> 00:06:00,000 we're probably dealing with a sauropod dinosaur. 129 00:06:00,000 --> 00:06:01,800 we're probably dealing with a sauropod dinosaur. 130 00:06:08,266 --> 00:06:10,500 [Ronan] These huge plant-eating reptiles 131 00:06:10,500 --> 00:06:13,467 dominated the Jurassic Wild West. 132 00:06:13,467 --> 00:06:18,166 At least 24 different kinds roamed the forest, 133 00:06:18,166 --> 00:06:20,600 including the famous diplodocus 134 00:06:20,600 --> 00:06:22,166 and brachiosaurus. 135 00:06:23,367 --> 00:06:25,734 Sauropods were the biggest creatures 136 00:06:25,734 --> 00:06:27,533 ever to walk the planet. 137 00:06:30,600 --> 00:06:34,600 Sauropod dinosaurs really were the giants of the Jurassic, 138 00:06:34,600 --> 00:06:36,367 at over 90 feet in length. 139 00:06:36,367 --> 00:06:39,967 That's like putting three Greyhound buses end to end. 140 00:06:39,967 --> 00:06:43,500 The next could be over 25 feet in length 141 00:06:43,500 --> 00:06:46,433 and their tails twice as long as that. 142 00:06:50,967 --> 00:06:54,500 [Ronan] At the far end of the site, 143 00:06:54,500 --> 00:06:58,600 another huge bone is now Phil's biggest problem. 144 00:06:58,600 --> 00:07:00,000 This is a massive shoulder blade 145 00:07:00,000 --> 00:07:00,166 This is a massive shoulder blade 146 00:07:00,166 --> 00:07:03,100 from this vast sauropod dinosaur. 147 00:07:03,100 --> 00:07:06,000 [Ronan] He believes this fossil could be a crucial key 148 00:07:06,000 --> 00:07:08,600 in understanding how some of the dinosaurs 149 00:07:08,600 --> 00:07:09,867 might have died here. 150 00:07:09,867 --> 00:07:11,500 [Phil] Hopefully, by close of play today, 151 00:07:11,500 --> 00:07:12,533 we can lift this thing. 152 00:07:12,533 --> 00:07:14,367 It will move for the first time 153 00:07:14,367 --> 00:07:17,100 in 150 million years. 154 00:07:17,100 --> 00:07:19,533 [Ronan] It's not just the bone itself he's interested in, 155 00:07:21,000 --> 00:07:23,867 the way it's buried and even what's hidden beneath it 156 00:07:23,867 --> 00:07:26,333 could all help to answer the question. 157 00:07:27,533 --> 00:07:30,000 But to reach that evidence, Phil has to dig up the bone. 158 00:07:30,000 --> 00:07:30,800 But to reach that evidence, Phil has to dig up the bone. 159 00:07:32,700 --> 00:07:34,467 To protect the crime scene, 160 00:07:34,467 --> 00:07:36,467 Phil needs to stabilize the bone 161 00:07:36,467 --> 00:07:38,467 inside a protective jacket. 162 00:07:39,700 --> 00:07:42,266 [Phil] You cannot flip the bone this big 163 00:07:42,266 --> 00:07:43,500 without having a nice bandage 164 00:07:43,500 --> 00:07:45,734 holding everything in or hugging it. 165 00:07:45,734 --> 00:07:48,100 [Ronan] Just like a cast on a broken limb, 166 00:07:48,100 --> 00:07:50,100 this mixture of plaster and burlap 167 00:07:50,100 --> 00:07:52,100 should hold everything together. 168 00:07:53,467 --> 00:07:55,166 But it's extremely heavy. 169 00:07:56,867 --> 00:07:58,800 And how much do you reckon is the weight, Peter? 170 00:08:00,367 --> 00:08:01,634 Two, three hundred pounds. 171 00:08:01,634 --> 00:08:03,266 Yeah. 172 00:08:03,266 --> 00:08:04,734 A mere 200, 300 pounds. 173 00:08:04,734 --> 00:08:08,266 A mere 200 to 300 pounds of dinosaur. 174 00:08:08,266 --> 00:08:09,734 And that's just the scapula. 175 00:08:11,100 --> 00:08:14,266 [Ronan] It's the riskiest part of the whole job. 176 00:08:14,266 --> 00:08:15,867 [Phil] At some digs, you can see 177 00:08:15,867 --> 00:08:17,600 these horrific situations 178 00:08:17,600 --> 00:08:19,600 where bones or even whole skeletons 179 00:08:19,600 --> 00:08:22,266 have been lifted up and the jacket utterly fails. 180 00:08:22,266 --> 00:08:24,500 And the animal then sort of turns to dust 181 00:08:24,500 --> 00:08:26,533 and drops out of the underside of the jacket. 182 00:08:26,533 --> 00:08:28,233 That's the worst-case scenario. 183 00:08:31,467 --> 00:08:33,266 -[man] Oh, we can... -[man] Keep moving. 184 00:08:33,266 --> 00:08:35,100 [man] Keep going. Can you touch it there? 185 00:08:35,100 --> 00:08:37,166 Yeah. Just checking, it's flat. Go for it. 186 00:08:37,166 --> 00:08:39,166 [man] Do you want to put a couple of chisels under there? 187 00:08:39,166 --> 00:08:40,700 -The long chisels? -[man] Yeah. 188 00:08:40,700 --> 00:08:43,467 [man] One, two, three. 189 00:08:43,467 --> 00:08:44,967 [man] Keep going, keep going, keep going. 190 00:08:44,967 --> 00:08:46,100 Nice one. 191 00:08:46,100 --> 00:08:47,700 Woo-hoo. 192 00:08:47,700 --> 00:08:50,266 Ho-ho, look scapula. 193 00:08:50,266 --> 00:08:51,533 That's amazing. 194 00:08:52,467 --> 00:08:53,900 That's beautiful. 195 00:08:59,100 --> 00:09:00,000 There... there you go. 196 00:09:00,000 --> 00:09:00,467 There... there you go. 197 00:09:01,600 --> 00:09:03,367 Six foot four. 198 00:09:03,367 --> 00:09:04,734 When we talk about our own height, 199 00:09:04,734 --> 00:09:07,367 we think of like, "I'm five foot nine." 200 00:09:07,367 --> 00:09:10,734 This bone is a little over six feet. 201 00:09:10,734 --> 00:09:12,634 So standing next to me, 202 00:09:12,634 --> 00:09:14,266 this is the length of the bone. 203 00:09:15,634 --> 00:09:17,367 [laughing] 204 00:09:17,367 --> 00:09:18,967 [Ronan] Keeping the bone in one piece 205 00:09:18,967 --> 00:09:20,800 isn't the only good news. 206 00:09:21,700 --> 00:09:24,600 Underneath it, Phil has struck gold, 207 00:09:24,600 --> 00:09:29,166 a jumble of different fossils, including parts of a tree. 208 00:09:29,166 --> 00:09:30,000 [Phil] You've got a complete mash of bones 209 00:09:30,000 --> 00:09:31,266 [Phil] You've got a complete mash of bones 210 00:09:31,266 --> 00:09:33,533 and plants and trunks washed together, 211 00:09:33,533 --> 00:09:36,800 creating this complete mess, basically. 212 00:09:38,166 --> 00:09:41,166 [Ronan] To Phil's trained eye, it all points to a potential 213 00:09:41,166 --> 00:09:43,600 cause of death being swept away 214 00:09:43,600 --> 00:09:45,634 by a fast flowing river. 215 00:09:45,634 --> 00:09:46,700 [Phil] Large chunks of rock 216 00:09:46,700 --> 00:09:48,734 being dragged along the bed of the river. 217 00:09:48,734 --> 00:09:51,100 That means the river is in flood to pick up, 218 00:09:51,100 --> 00:09:53,066 move big chunks of rock along. 219 00:09:53,066 --> 00:09:54,467 And if you ever look at a river, 220 00:09:54,467 --> 00:09:57,100 where there's a log-jam and piled up logs, 221 00:09:57,100 --> 00:09:58,533 um, this is the sort of structure 222 00:09:58,533 --> 00:10:00,000 that would have caught the bodies of these dinosaurs. 223 00:10:00,000 --> 00:10:01,467 that would have caught the bodies of these dinosaurs. 224 00:10:01,467 --> 00:10:03,700 [Ronan] Phil reckons that a river flowed here 225 00:10:03,700 --> 00:10:06,166 150 million years ago. 226 00:10:06,166 --> 00:10:07,266 Oh, yes. 227 00:10:07,266 --> 00:10:10,266 Oh, that's beautiful. 228 00:10:10,266 --> 00:10:14,800 Looks like a trunk and some branches coming off. 229 00:10:16,700 --> 00:10:18,700 [Ronan] And he thinks that a violent storm 230 00:10:18,700 --> 00:10:20,967 once turned it into a death trap 231 00:10:20,967 --> 00:10:22,734 for at least one dinosaur. 232 00:10:23,867 --> 00:10:26,166 It ended up in a watery grave, 233 00:10:26,166 --> 00:10:28,900 washed in with a huge flood deposit. 234 00:10:30,100 --> 00:10:32,166 [Ronan] But did the dinosaur drown 235 00:10:32,166 --> 00:10:34,233 or was it dead before the flood? 236 00:10:35,166 --> 00:10:37,100 Phil can't be sure, 237 00:10:37,100 --> 00:10:39,266 but there was certainly water here 238 00:10:39,266 --> 00:10:41,066 and lots of it. 239 00:10:41,066 --> 00:10:42,367 Could this be the reason 240 00:10:42,367 --> 00:10:45,467 so many dinosaurs came to visit the site? 241 00:10:50,367 --> 00:10:51,533 Lower down the hill, 242 00:10:51,533 --> 00:10:55,066 the team has discovered more evidence of water. 243 00:10:55,066 --> 00:10:57,734 Ripples like geological fingerprints, 244 00:10:57,734 --> 00:11:00,000 preserved in mud, that may once have lain 245 00:11:00,000 --> 00:11:00,367 preserved in mud, that may once have lain 246 00:11:00,367 --> 00:11:03,066 at the bottom of a very shallow pool. 247 00:11:03,066 --> 00:11:05,634 These ripples didn't form yesterday. 248 00:11:05,634 --> 00:11:07,867 They formed 150 million years ago, 249 00:11:07,867 --> 00:11:10,100 when there was a few millimeters of water 250 00:11:10,100 --> 00:11:11,800 covering what was this mudflat. 251 00:11:13,100 --> 00:11:16,467 [Ronan] Phil thinks this was not a dangerous river, 252 00:11:16,467 --> 00:11:18,533 but a life-saving watering hole. 253 00:11:19,967 --> 00:11:23,000 So like this pond-like environment, shallow water, 254 00:11:23,000 --> 00:11:24,100 the wind was blowing, 255 00:11:24,100 --> 00:11:26,000 the surface of the water creating 256 00:11:26,000 --> 00:11:28,166 these beautiful ripple marks. 257 00:11:28,166 --> 00:11:30,000 [Ronan] It could have drawn dinosaurs to drink here 258 00:11:30,000 --> 00:11:30,967 [Ronan] It could have drawn dinosaurs to drink here 259 00:11:30,967 --> 00:11:32,600 in huge numbers. 260 00:11:32,600 --> 00:11:37,600 If you go to a waterhole today on the savanna of Africa, 261 00:11:37,600 --> 00:11:40,066 you will see a lot of animals 262 00:11:40,066 --> 00:11:42,266 drinking at the side of that waterhole. 263 00:11:42,266 --> 00:11:44,533 It's a very, very busy place. 264 00:11:56,867 --> 00:11:59,600 [Ronan] Dr. Victoria Egerton wants to find out 265 00:11:59,600 --> 00:12:00,000 if the area was some kind of sauropods' Garden of Eden, 266 00:12:00,000 --> 00:12:04,166 if the area was some kind of sauropods' Garden of Eden, 267 00:12:04,166 --> 00:12:06,166 an oasis of plentiful food. 268 00:12:10,734 --> 00:12:14,100 You can see the bits of fossil give things a light-- 269 00:12:14,100 --> 00:12:15,266 [Ronan] It's the kind of evidence 270 00:12:15,266 --> 00:12:18,000 that's usually very hard to find. 271 00:12:18,000 --> 00:12:19,266 But once again, 272 00:12:19,266 --> 00:12:21,367 the Jurassic Mile is different. 273 00:12:21,367 --> 00:12:24,367 Not only do we get some really awesome dinosaur bones, 274 00:12:24,367 --> 00:12:26,000 but we get plants. 275 00:12:26,000 --> 00:12:27,900 This is incredibly rare. 276 00:12:29,367 --> 00:12:30,000 It is a treasure trove of information for the Jurassic, 277 00:12:30,000 --> 00:12:33,533 It is a treasure trove of information for the Jurassic, 278 00:12:33,533 --> 00:12:35,367 not just about the dinosaurs, 279 00:12:35,367 --> 00:12:39,700 but about the environment that they lived in as well. 280 00:12:39,700 --> 00:12:42,533 [Ronan] Uncovering these secrets from the remote past 281 00:12:42,533 --> 00:12:45,734 is what brings Victoria back here year after year. 282 00:12:47,100 --> 00:12:49,000 What I enjoy most about paleontology 283 00:12:49,000 --> 00:12:51,166 is that it's storytelling. 284 00:12:51,166 --> 00:12:54,166 You're recreating this environment 285 00:12:54,166 --> 00:12:56,700 and trying to understand how these animals live 286 00:12:56,700 --> 00:12:58,634 and what the world looked like. 287 00:13:01,000 --> 00:13:02,533 [cooing] 288 00:13:02,533 --> 00:13:05,734 [Ronan] Victoria finds plant fossils everywhere. 289 00:13:05,734 --> 00:13:09,500 It's clear evidence that this area was green and lush, 290 00:13:09,500 --> 00:13:12,734 but in a way that was very alien to us. 291 00:13:12,734 --> 00:13:14,266 During the Jurassic, 292 00:13:14,266 --> 00:13:18,066 the plants and landscape was pretty different. 293 00:13:18,066 --> 00:13:20,867 We had no flowering plants. 294 00:13:20,867 --> 00:13:24,734 That means no fruits, no vegetables, and no grass. 295 00:13:26,000 --> 00:13:27,867 You're gonna eat what's available. 296 00:13:27,867 --> 00:13:30,000 Everything from ferns to cycads, 297 00:13:30,000 --> 00:13:30,734 Everything from ferns to cycads, 298 00:13:30,734 --> 00:13:33,367 as well as lots and lots of conifers 299 00:13:33,367 --> 00:13:34,800 like monkey puzzle trees. 300 00:13:37,100 --> 00:13:39,867 [Ronan] She soon finds evidence of a water-loving weed 301 00:13:39,867 --> 00:13:41,367 called horsetails. 302 00:13:42,367 --> 00:13:44,000 That's really nice. 303 00:13:44,000 --> 00:13:46,500 So, right here, if you look at this one, 304 00:13:46,500 --> 00:13:50,066 what we have here is Equisetum or horsetail. 305 00:13:50,066 --> 00:13:52,367 And you can see the stem right there. 306 00:13:52,367 --> 00:13:54,800 And we've got some little tiny leaves attached. 307 00:13:57,600 --> 00:13:59,166 [Ronan] There may be plenty of them, 308 00:13:59,166 --> 00:14:00,000 but they're tough and hard to digest. 309 00:14:00,000 --> 00:14:01,634 but they're tough and hard to digest. 310 00:14:07,266 --> 00:14:09,500 If this was all there was to eat, 311 00:14:09,500 --> 00:14:13,467 how did these giant dinosaurs get enough nutrition? 312 00:14:13,467 --> 00:14:16,533 Did these sauropods starve to death? 313 00:14:26,500 --> 00:14:28,166 [Ronan] High in the Wyoming desert, 314 00:14:28,166 --> 00:14:32,634 a dinosaur graveyard is emerging from the ground, 315 00:14:32,634 --> 00:14:34,867 and a team of scientists is investigating 316 00:14:34,867 --> 00:14:36,233 the scene of the crime. 317 00:14:37,533 --> 00:14:40,967 They want to know what killed these Jurassic giants. 318 00:14:40,967 --> 00:14:42,634 [Phil] Wow. 319 00:14:42,634 --> 00:14:44,500 [Ronan] So far, the team has found 320 00:14:44,500 --> 00:14:49,100 the fossilized remains of 10 dead sauropods, 321 00:14:49,100 --> 00:14:51,066 huge, long-necked dinosaurs 322 00:14:51,066 --> 00:14:52,280 like diplodocus and brachiosaurus, 323 00:14:52,280 --> 00:14:54,100 like diplodocus and brachiosaurus, 324 00:14:54,100 --> 00:14:57,533 along with evidence of their strictly herbivorous diet. 325 00:14:58,734 --> 00:15:02,734 These super-sized animals had appetites to match, 326 00:15:02,734 --> 00:15:06,533 but only tough, low-nutrition plants to sustain them. 327 00:15:06,533 --> 00:15:07,967 Was the Jurassic Mile 328 00:15:07,967 --> 00:15:10,533 too popular as a dinosaur diner? 329 00:15:11,734 --> 00:15:14,900 Did they run out of food, too weak to move on 330 00:15:14,900 --> 00:15:16,800 to the next life-saving Eden? 331 00:15:20,967 --> 00:15:22,280 [Ronan] The answer may come from living animals. 332 00:15:22,280 --> 00:15:23,634 [Ronan] The answer may come from living animals. 333 00:15:24,734 --> 00:15:28,266 These enormous reptiles are giant tortoises. 334 00:15:30,266 --> 00:15:32,166 Together with birds and crocodiles, 335 00:15:32,166 --> 00:15:33,967 they form a group of animals 336 00:15:33,967 --> 00:15:36,967 that are the closest living relatives to dinosaurs. 337 00:15:39,367 --> 00:15:42,634 Biologist, Dr. Stephen Blake and wildlife vet, 338 00:15:42,634 --> 00:15:44,166 Dr. Sharon Deem 339 00:15:44,166 --> 00:15:48,266 have been researching these animals for 12 years, 340 00:15:48,266 --> 00:15:49,533 both here at the zoo 341 00:15:49,533 --> 00:15:52,000 and in the animal's natural habitat 342 00:15:52,000 --> 00:15:52,280 on the Galapagos Islands. 343 00:15:52,280 --> 00:15:53,867 on the Galapagos Islands. 344 00:15:53,867 --> 00:15:54,967 [Stephen] All right. 345 00:15:54,967 --> 00:15:56,166 See how big this one is. 346 00:15:56,166 --> 00:15:57,467 Here we go. 347 00:15:59,066 --> 00:16:00,100 [Ronan] They're investigating 348 00:16:00,100 --> 00:16:02,333 how tortoises maintain a healthy diet. 349 00:16:05,533 --> 00:16:07,867 Here in the zoo, the tortoises are treated 350 00:16:07,867 --> 00:16:09,734 to a daily vegetable buffet. 351 00:16:11,066 --> 00:16:14,367 But in the wild, it's a very different story. 352 00:16:14,367 --> 00:16:17,166 In the wild, the tortoises have to, 353 00:16:17,166 --> 00:16:22,266 uh, eat both low-quality forage and lots of it. 354 00:16:22,266 --> 00:16:22,280 [Ronan] Just like Jurassic sauropods, 355 00:16:22,280 --> 00:16:24,533 [Ronan] Just like Jurassic sauropods, 356 00:16:24,533 --> 00:16:27,634 the tortoises can survive on poor-quality food 357 00:16:27,634 --> 00:16:32,166 that would be unable to support other large animals 358 00:16:32,166 --> 00:16:34,066 because a cocktail of bacteria 359 00:16:34,066 --> 00:16:36,367 in their gut helps to break it down, 360 00:16:36,367 --> 00:16:39,533 extracting precious nutrients locked inside. 361 00:16:40,734 --> 00:16:42,734 [Sharon] They can really get a lot of energy, 362 00:16:42,734 --> 00:16:45,066 calories, minerals, vitamins 363 00:16:45,066 --> 00:16:48,533 out of food that may be less, less quality 364 00:16:48,533 --> 00:16:50,467 than it would be for someone like us. 365 00:16:52,166 --> 00:16:52,280 [Ronan] But they're eating strategy 366 00:16:52,280 --> 00:16:53,634 [Ronan] But they're eating strategy 367 00:16:53,634 --> 00:16:55,367 leaves them with the same problem 368 00:16:55,367 --> 00:16:56,800 as our sauropods. 369 00:16:58,266 --> 00:17:00,900 Even with their specialist digestion, 370 00:17:00,900 --> 00:17:03,166 their food is so low in nutrition 371 00:17:03,166 --> 00:17:05,634 that they need to eat huge quantities. 372 00:17:07,000 --> 00:17:09,533 Eventually, they eat everything in sight. 373 00:17:10,367 --> 00:17:12,967 In the dry season, on the Galapagos, 374 00:17:12,967 --> 00:17:15,166 the lowlands receive no rainfall 375 00:17:15,166 --> 00:17:17,367 and are very dry and become very desert like. 376 00:17:17,367 --> 00:17:19,166 There's very little food around. 377 00:17:23,066 --> 00:17:25,467 [Ronan] Sharon and Steve decided to find out 378 00:17:25,467 --> 00:17:27,467 how they get around this problem. 379 00:17:28,634 --> 00:17:30,367 By fitting GPS trackers 380 00:17:30,367 --> 00:17:34,467 to a group of Galapagos tortoises, 381 00:17:34,467 --> 00:17:37,233 what they discovered was a huge surprise. 382 00:17:38,533 --> 00:17:40,967 As their own graphic model reveals 383 00:17:40,967 --> 00:17:42,634 when they run out of food, 384 00:17:42,634 --> 00:17:45,533 hungry giant tortoises go on a hike. 385 00:17:46,967 --> 00:17:51,166 Well, nobody knew tortoises migrated, within six months, 386 00:17:51,166 --> 00:17:52,280 we realized that this phenomenon was real. 387 00:17:52,280 --> 00:17:53,433 we realized that this phenomenon was real. 388 00:17:54,734 --> 00:17:57,467 When the food runs out in the lowlands, 389 00:17:57,467 --> 00:17:59,367 they moved to a higher ground. 390 00:18:00,734 --> 00:18:03,367 [Sharon] Giant tortoises go from the lowlands, 391 00:18:03,367 --> 00:18:06,266 where the food quality is low to the highland, 392 00:18:06,266 --> 00:18:10,500 where they have a... what we call a salad bowl of choices. 393 00:18:10,500 --> 00:18:13,166 [Ronan] Slowly clambering more than six miles 394 00:18:13,166 --> 00:18:14,967 through volcanic boulder fields, 395 00:18:14,967 --> 00:18:17,066 its equivalent to a human walking 396 00:18:17,066 --> 00:18:20,000 from New York City to Philadelphia. 397 00:18:20,000 --> 00:18:22,280 [Stephen] Tortoises are not known for their sprinting abilities. 398 00:18:22,280 --> 00:18:23,734 [Stephen] Tortoises are not known for their sprinting abilities. 399 00:18:23,734 --> 00:18:24,867 Having said that, 400 00:18:24,867 --> 00:18:26,967 they're a lot more mobile than people 401 00:18:26,967 --> 00:18:28,533 give them credit for. 402 00:18:28,533 --> 00:18:30,533 [Ronan] Finding enough food throughout the year 403 00:18:30,533 --> 00:18:33,000 is a major challenge for big animals. 404 00:18:33,967 --> 00:18:38,000 As they grow larger, so does their need to feed. 405 00:18:38,000 --> 00:18:40,166 We always say giant tortoises need a lot of food, 406 00:18:40,166 --> 00:18:41,634 but you imagine a sauropod 407 00:18:41,634 --> 00:18:43,467 needs a colossal amount of food, 408 00:18:43,467 --> 00:18:45,367 so they got to move and to get out 409 00:18:45,367 --> 00:18:47,900 of one habitat into another. 410 00:18:47,900 --> 00:18:49,367 You've probably got to move a long way, 411 00:18:49,367 --> 00:18:51,100 maybe hundreds of miles. 412 00:18:51,100 --> 00:18:52,280 It's the same evolutionary solution 413 00:18:52,280 --> 00:18:55,367 It's the same evolutionary solution 414 00:18:55,367 --> 00:18:57,533 to the same problem. 415 00:18:57,533 --> 00:19:00,967 [Ronan] As food supplies withered in the Jurassic dry season, 416 00:19:00,967 --> 00:19:02,066 the watering hole 417 00:19:02,066 --> 00:19:03,867 could have been a vital rest stop 418 00:19:03,867 --> 00:19:06,467 on the way to higher, greener ground. 419 00:19:08,900 --> 00:19:13,266 But sauropods were many times bigger than giant tortoises. 420 00:19:13,266 --> 00:19:16,000 How can we know if they were just as mobile? 421 00:19:25,166 --> 00:19:28,066 Animal movement expert, Prof. Bill Sellers, 422 00:19:28,066 --> 00:19:31,367 is trying to find out if sauropods 423 00:19:31,367 --> 00:19:33,266 weighing up to 80 tons 424 00:19:33,266 --> 00:19:36,533 were capable of making long journeys. 425 00:19:36,533 --> 00:19:39,166 He's discovered extraordinary evidence 426 00:19:39,166 --> 00:19:41,634 that could help to answer that question. 427 00:19:41,634 --> 00:19:44,634 Super-sized dinosaur footprints. 428 00:19:46,500 --> 00:19:48,634 I'm interested in how dinosaurs moved. 429 00:19:48,634 --> 00:19:51,867 And one of the best pieces of evidence we have 430 00:19:51,867 --> 00:19:52,280 about dinosaur movement is footprints. 431 00:19:52,280 --> 00:19:54,367 about dinosaur movement is footprints. 432 00:19:54,367 --> 00:19:55,634 [Ronan] These fallen rocks 433 00:19:55,634 --> 00:19:57,900 were once a patch of fine sand, 434 00:19:57,900 --> 00:20:01,000 higher up the hill, and baked into them, 435 00:20:01,000 --> 00:20:02,533 are the tracks of a sauropod 436 00:20:02,533 --> 00:20:06,433 that walked by 150 million years ago. 437 00:20:08,367 --> 00:20:11,467 You can see the toe marks here and you can see 438 00:20:11,467 --> 00:20:14,266 the base of the foot in some detail 439 00:20:14,266 --> 00:20:16,467 'cause they have rather cylindrical feet 440 00:20:16,467 --> 00:20:18,533 that stick into the ground. 441 00:20:18,533 --> 00:20:21,800 [Ronan] Just one preserved footprint is a precious find. 442 00:20:23,066 --> 00:20:25,166 But a trackway of multiple prints 443 00:20:25,166 --> 00:20:27,233 is an information goldmine. 444 00:20:28,166 --> 00:20:31,266 If we actually go higher up the cliff, 445 00:20:31,266 --> 00:20:33,533 we can start to find other footprints. 446 00:20:35,734 --> 00:20:38,533 So, here, we have another sauropod footprint, 447 00:20:38,533 --> 00:20:40,166 and it's been cut in half here. 448 00:20:40,166 --> 00:20:42,967 This is almost certainly from the same, um, 449 00:20:42,967 --> 00:20:44,467 the same trackway as that. 450 00:20:45,367 --> 00:20:47,867 [Ronan] From the pattern of the footprints, 451 00:20:47,867 --> 00:20:51,967 Bill can use a finely-tuned computer program 452 00:20:51,967 --> 00:20:52,280 to find out how this leviathan walked. 453 00:20:52,280 --> 00:20:55,000 to find out how this leviathan walked. 454 00:20:57,533 --> 00:20:59,166 We can take measurements from things 455 00:20:59,166 --> 00:21:03,000 like the length of the stride and the size of the foot, 456 00:21:03,000 --> 00:21:06,266 and then we can use that to produce a scaled 457 00:21:06,266 --> 00:21:09,533 model of the dinosaur we think made the tracks. 458 00:21:09,533 --> 00:21:12,166 We have put on the muscles 459 00:21:12,166 --> 00:21:14,634 that we expect to find for an animal this size. 460 00:21:14,634 --> 00:21:17,500 And then, we can use the computer simulation 461 00:21:17,500 --> 00:21:19,266 to try and make it actually walk in 462 00:21:19,266 --> 00:21:20,800 the trackways that we'd measured. 463 00:21:22,066 --> 00:21:22,280 [Ronan] Best of all, Bill's program can calculate 464 00:21:22,280 --> 00:21:24,734 [Ronan] Best of all, Bill's program can calculate 465 00:21:24,734 --> 00:21:26,634 the dinosaur's top speed. 466 00:21:27,867 --> 00:21:29,734 It's surprisingly high. 467 00:21:29,734 --> 00:21:32,467 Diplodocus didn't dawdle. 468 00:21:32,467 --> 00:21:35,634 These guys can walk at about 7.5 meters per second 469 00:21:35,634 --> 00:21:38,734 simply because they can walk with really long legs. 470 00:21:38,734 --> 00:21:41,634 So, in fact, um, it's quite fast. 471 00:21:46,266 --> 00:21:48,734 [Ronan] At more than 15 miles an hour, 472 00:21:48,734 --> 00:21:51,800 sauropods were as swift as Olympic athletes. 473 00:21:53,266 --> 00:21:55,533 And easily capable of the long journey 474 00:21:55,533 --> 00:21:57,233 to summer-feeding grounds. 475 00:21:59,166 --> 00:22:00,266 Along the way, 476 00:22:00,266 --> 00:22:02,533 stopping off at the Jurassic Mile, 477 00:22:02,533 --> 00:22:04,066 like a roadside diner, 478 00:22:04,066 --> 00:22:06,233 for life-saving food and water. 479 00:22:07,734 --> 00:22:09,867 So, if it wasn't starvation 480 00:22:09,867 --> 00:22:13,800 or exhaustion that killed all these giants, what did? 481 00:22:15,166 --> 00:22:17,266 [cooing] 482 00:22:22,266 --> 00:22:22,280 [Ronan] Phil is eager to find out. 483 00:22:22,280 --> 00:22:24,734 [Ronan] Phil is eager to find out. 484 00:22:24,734 --> 00:22:27,166 He's sifting carefully through the death site 485 00:22:27,166 --> 00:22:28,634 in search of clues. 486 00:22:31,533 --> 00:22:33,367 But approaching clouds are a warning 487 00:22:33,367 --> 00:22:35,266 that should never be ignored. 488 00:22:40,634 --> 00:22:45,367 Bad weather is bad news for fossils, 489 00:22:45,367 --> 00:22:48,266 and many of the most crucial new discoveries 490 00:22:48,266 --> 00:22:50,533 are also the most delicate. 491 00:22:50,533 --> 00:22:52,280 Ripples in the sand, footprints, 492 00:22:52,280 --> 00:22:52,867 Ripples in the sand, footprints, 493 00:22:52,867 --> 00:22:57,066 and fragile plant fossils could be destroyed overnight by heavy rains. 494 00:23:01,634 --> 00:23:03,734 [Phil] This is the first time they've seen the light of day 495 00:23:03,734 --> 00:23:05,500 for 150 million years. 496 00:23:05,500 --> 00:23:08,467 If the weather hits before the bones are out of the ground, 497 00:23:08,467 --> 00:23:10,367 it's a potential disaster. 498 00:23:10,367 --> 00:23:13,066 [Ronan] Jen's team rushes to protect the fossils, 499 00:23:13,066 --> 00:23:15,533 but the rain can quickly cut off the site. 500 00:23:16,500 --> 00:23:18,967 They need to make their escape. 501 00:23:18,967 --> 00:23:20,467 Nice weather for ducks. 502 00:23:22,066 --> 00:23:22,280 The storm is coming. We got to go. 503 00:23:22,280 --> 00:23:23,734 The storm is coming. We got to go. 504 00:23:23,734 --> 00:23:24,967 Go, go, go. 505 00:23:26,066 --> 00:23:28,367 [Ronan] Now all that protects this open grave 506 00:23:28,367 --> 00:23:31,266 are a few layers of plaster and tarpaulins. 507 00:23:32,900 --> 00:23:35,100 Phil can only hope it's enough. 508 00:23:46,166 --> 00:23:48,166 [Ronan] In the high desert of Wyoming, 509 00:23:48,166 --> 00:23:50,500 a mysterious dinosaur boneyard 510 00:23:50,500 --> 00:23:55,066 is emerging from the rock after 150 million years. 511 00:23:58,266 --> 00:24:01,266 Up here, conditions change fast. 512 00:24:01,266 --> 00:24:04,367 And last night, a ferocious storm battered the site. 513 00:24:06,734 --> 00:24:09,867 The lightning show that that one put on was really amazing. 514 00:24:09,867 --> 00:24:11,920 I've never really seen 515 00:24:11,920 --> 00:24:12,166 I've never really seen 516 00:24:12,166 --> 00:24:14,734 lightning that widespread and constant. 517 00:24:16,166 --> 00:24:18,867 [Ronan] Storms can destroy crucial evidence 518 00:24:18,867 --> 00:24:20,734 that could solve the mystery 519 00:24:20,734 --> 00:24:23,500 of what killed these dinosaurs. 520 00:24:23,500 --> 00:24:26,467 First job of the day is to check for damage, 521 00:24:26,467 --> 00:24:27,634 starting with a mound 522 00:24:27,634 --> 00:24:29,967 where Phil's spotted signs of bone 523 00:24:29,967 --> 00:24:32,100 from an unidentified dinosaur. 524 00:24:33,266 --> 00:24:36,166 It's a pain when the site gets wet 525 00:24:36,166 --> 00:24:38,867 'cause it means you start picking up bone 526 00:24:38,867 --> 00:24:41,920 and stuff on your feet and that damages the site. 527 00:24:41,920 --> 00:24:42,100 and stuff on your feet and that damages the site. 528 00:24:42,100 --> 00:24:43,734 [Ronan] But the team is in luck. 529 00:24:43,734 --> 00:24:46,100 All the evidence is intact. 530 00:24:46,100 --> 00:24:48,467 Phil's investigation can continue. 531 00:24:51,967 --> 00:24:55,166 So far, the team has found the fossilized bones 532 00:24:55,166 --> 00:24:57,367 from 10 sauropods. 533 00:24:57,367 --> 00:25:00,967 Giant dinosaurs like diplodocus and brachiosaurus 534 00:25:00,967 --> 00:25:03,333 that dominated the Jurassic landscape. 535 00:25:04,367 --> 00:25:07,967 They're trying to reconstruct this prehistoric crime scene 536 00:25:07,967 --> 00:25:11,000 to figure out why so many of them died here. 537 00:25:12,500 --> 00:25:15,867 Victoria is examining some very special bones 538 00:25:15,867 --> 00:25:17,900 from another sauropod dinosaur. 539 00:25:19,066 --> 00:25:21,000 They reveal an ancient link 540 00:25:21,000 --> 00:25:23,967 between dinosaurs and modern birds, 541 00:25:23,967 --> 00:25:26,367 which could provide the best evidence yet 542 00:25:26,367 --> 00:25:29,100 of what killed these giant beasts. 543 00:25:29,100 --> 00:25:30,634 What we have is the neck bone 544 00:25:30,634 --> 00:25:32,000 and curving into this one 545 00:25:32,000 --> 00:25:34,900 and getting smaller as we go this way. 546 00:25:36,367 --> 00:25:40,734 [Ronan] There could be as many as 15 of these sauropod neck bones 547 00:25:40,734 --> 00:25:41,920 containing crucial clues. 548 00:25:41,920 --> 00:25:42,533 containing crucial clues. 549 00:25:45,066 --> 00:25:48,367 With a tiny head on the end of a 20-foot neck, 550 00:25:48,367 --> 00:25:49,867 sauropods looked like 551 00:25:49,867 --> 00:25:52,000 one of nature's great mistakes. 552 00:25:52,867 --> 00:25:55,166 Imagine having to hold your arm out 553 00:25:55,166 --> 00:25:57,100 and hold a giant rock, 554 00:25:57,100 --> 00:26:00,166 and that's what you have to do the rest of your life. 555 00:26:00,166 --> 00:26:02,734 Your muscles would get really tired. 556 00:26:02,734 --> 00:26:06,333 [Ronan] Their long necks look almost impossible to hold up. 557 00:26:07,500 --> 00:26:09,266 But to get around this problem, 558 00:26:09,266 --> 00:26:11,920 sauropods had a surprising evolutionary secret 559 00:26:11,920 --> 00:26:12,967 sauropods had a surprising evolutionary secret 560 00:26:12,967 --> 00:26:14,900 hidden inside their necks. 561 00:26:16,066 --> 00:26:18,600 Sauropod dinosaurs are some of the weirdest animals 562 00:26:18,600 --> 00:26:20,166 ever to have walked on the planet. 563 00:26:20,166 --> 00:26:21,867 And the adaptations 564 00:26:21,867 --> 00:26:24,266 that these organisms evolved over 565 00:26:24,266 --> 00:26:28,634 millions of years to become so big are fascinating. 566 00:26:28,634 --> 00:26:31,100 They are the walking suspension bridges 567 00:26:31,100 --> 00:26:32,433 of the fossil world. 568 00:26:34,867 --> 00:26:37,467 [Ronan] But new research reveals this secret 569 00:26:37,467 --> 00:26:40,066 may have occasionally been their undoing. 570 00:26:48,066 --> 00:26:52,867 At the Museum of the Rockies, 571 00:26:52,867 --> 00:26:56,600 sauropod expert, Dr. Cary Woodruff 572 00:26:56,600 --> 00:27:00,266 is investigating a collection of fossils, 573 00:27:00,266 --> 00:27:03,233 unearthed from another site in the Morrison formation. 574 00:27:04,634 --> 00:27:07,066 This is from a long-necked dinosaur 575 00:27:07,066 --> 00:27:09,867 that we discovered, and we named this animal, Dolly. 576 00:27:09,867 --> 00:27:11,920 It gets that name after country Western singer, 577 00:27:11,920 --> 00:27:12,166 It gets that name after country Western singer, 578 00:27:12,166 --> 00:27:13,634 Dolly Parton. 579 00:27:13,634 --> 00:27:17,333 So Dolly was alive about 150 million years ago. 580 00:27:18,867 --> 00:27:21,166 [Ronan] Examining Dolly's neck bones, 581 00:27:21,166 --> 00:27:23,266 Cary spotted a clue that gives 582 00:27:23,266 --> 00:27:27,800 an unprecedented glimpse into the life and death of this dinosaur. 583 00:27:29,634 --> 00:27:33,266 Well, if we look at a normal sauropod vertebra here, 584 00:27:33,266 --> 00:27:36,166 you see the bone along these areas 585 00:27:36,166 --> 00:27:38,367 is incredibly smooth 586 00:27:38,367 --> 00:27:41,100 and sometimes almost glassy like. 587 00:27:41,100 --> 00:27:41,920 But I knew something was special about Dolly 588 00:27:41,920 --> 00:27:43,266 But I knew something was special about Dolly 589 00:27:43,266 --> 00:27:45,734 because as soon as I looked at those same areas, 590 00:27:45,734 --> 00:27:47,734 we see that rough and wrinkled bone 591 00:27:47,734 --> 00:27:50,634 and even coming outside of some of those sockets 592 00:27:50,634 --> 00:27:51,967 are this weird, 593 00:27:51,967 --> 00:27:54,533 almost broccoli-like irregular bone growths. 594 00:27:55,867 --> 00:27:56,967 [Ronan] The growths appeared 595 00:27:56,967 --> 00:27:59,333 on several of Dolly's neck vertebrae. 596 00:28:00,533 --> 00:28:02,634 Puzzled, Cary shared his discovery 597 00:28:02,634 --> 00:28:04,433 with colleagues around the world. 598 00:28:05,367 --> 00:28:07,100 I literally took a picture of these features 599 00:28:07,100 --> 00:28:08,867 and posted it on social media 600 00:28:08,867 --> 00:28:11,000 and said, "What the heck are these?" 601 00:28:11,967 --> 00:28:14,266 [Ronan] One reply was from a veterinarian, 602 00:28:14,266 --> 00:28:17,800 who recognized these marks as a serious bone infection. 603 00:28:19,166 --> 00:28:22,066 And the only way they could explain the infection 604 00:28:22,066 --> 00:28:26,066 was by a respiratory disease that normally affects birds. 605 00:28:27,100 --> 00:28:29,867 The group answer was, "Holy cow, 606 00:28:29,867 --> 00:28:33,333 we've never seen a respiratory infection in a dinosaur before." 607 00:28:35,066 --> 00:28:37,600 [Ronan] Cary wondered how a bird lung disease 608 00:28:37,600 --> 00:28:39,734 could affect Dolly's bones. 609 00:28:41,166 --> 00:28:41,920 The answer lies in the surprising way 610 00:28:41,920 --> 00:28:43,367 The answer lies in the surprising way 611 00:28:43,367 --> 00:28:45,634 that sauropods solve the problem 612 00:28:45,634 --> 00:28:47,734 of holding up their massive necks. 613 00:28:50,867 --> 00:28:53,500 Paleontologists think sauropod chests 614 00:28:53,500 --> 00:28:57,266 held large chambers called air sacs. 615 00:28:57,266 --> 00:29:00,367 They kept the lungs constantly supplied with oxygen. 616 00:29:01,367 --> 00:29:03,367 Smaller tube-shaped air sacs 617 00:29:03,367 --> 00:29:05,533 ran all the way along the neck, 618 00:29:05,533 --> 00:29:06,967 surrounding the bones 619 00:29:06,967 --> 00:29:09,100 and filling their hollow cavities. 620 00:29:10,600 --> 00:29:11,920 This may be the secret 621 00:29:11,920 --> 00:29:12,066 This may be the secret 622 00:29:12,066 --> 00:29:15,867 to how sauropods held up their long necks. 623 00:29:15,867 --> 00:29:17,867 Taking the place of dense bone, 624 00:29:17,867 --> 00:29:21,066 the air-filled tubes made them light enough to lift. 625 00:29:23,266 --> 00:29:24,467 Modern birds 626 00:29:24,467 --> 00:29:27,000 are distant descendants of dinosaurs, 627 00:29:27,000 --> 00:29:29,367 and birds too have air sacs. 628 00:29:29,367 --> 00:29:32,500 They reduce weight enough to allow for flight, 629 00:29:32,500 --> 00:29:34,734 but they have a big downside. 630 00:29:34,734 --> 00:29:38,500 They increase birds' risk of serious infection. 631 00:29:38,500 --> 00:29:41,920 We were able to hypothesize that Dolly had air sacculitis, 632 00:29:41,920 --> 00:29:43,066 We were able to hypothesize that Dolly had air sacculitis, 633 00:29:43,066 --> 00:29:45,100 and that respiratory infection, 634 00:29:45,100 --> 00:29:47,634 the air sacculitis was so bad 635 00:29:47,634 --> 00:29:50,900 that it actually caused a secondary bone infection. 636 00:29:53,967 --> 00:29:56,734 [Ronan] Using modern CT-scanning technology, 637 00:29:56,734 --> 00:29:57,867 Cary can work out 638 00:29:57,867 --> 00:30:00,533 just how advanced the infection was. 639 00:30:01,967 --> 00:30:04,066 [Cary] Dolly would have had labored breathing, 640 00:30:04,066 --> 00:30:06,467 probably sneezing and nasal discharge, 641 00:30:06,467 --> 00:30:07,867 and, basically, the same symptoms 642 00:30:07,867 --> 00:30:09,533 that we think of that we've all had 643 00:30:09,533 --> 00:30:11,920 with the cold or flu or pneumonia. 644 00:30:11,920 --> 00:30:12,367 with the cold or flu or pneumonia. 645 00:30:12,367 --> 00:30:15,066 [Ronan] The scans reveal that Dolly's air sac infection 646 00:30:15,066 --> 00:30:18,166 had spread deep inside the bones, 647 00:30:18,166 --> 00:30:21,734 causing illness far more serious than a cold. 648 00:30:21,734 --> 00:30:25,166 Here we have a case, from 150 million years ago, 649 00:30:25,166 --> 00:30:28,367 of an individual dinosaur that was sick. 650 00:30:28,367 --> 00:30:30,500 And it was so sick, it probably died 651 00:30:30,500 --> 00:30:31,867 from that illness. 652 00:30:31,867 --> 00:30:33,867 And I think those are 653 00:30:33,867 --> 00:30:35,266 the closest thing to time machines 654 00:30:35,266 --> 00:30:37,634 we'll ever get these little windows 655 00:30:37,634 --> 00:30:41,266 and literally moments in the life of a dinosaur. 656 00:30:43,634 --> 00:30:45,634 [Ronan] Were the dinosaurs at the Jurassic Mile 657 00:30:45,634 --> 00:30:51,066 victims of their own design and died of disease? 658 00:30:51,066 --> 00:30:54,266 So far, Dolly's are the only sauropod bones 659 00:30:54,266 --> 00:30:56,467 discovered with this type of infection. 660 00:31:00,266 --> 00:31:03,734 Until similar evidence is found at the Jurassic Mile, 661 00:31:03,734 --> 00:31:05,367 the team will need to keep looking 662 00:31:05,367 --> 00:31:07,333 for other potential killers. 663 00:31:12,367 --> 00:31:14,100 The answer may soon be at hand. 664 00:31:15,100 --> 00:31:16,166 Back on site, 665 00:31:16,166 --> 00:31:19,634 Jen has unearthed another spectacular discovery 666 00:31:19,634 --> 00:31:22,100 that may be the lead they're looking for. 667 00:31:23,734 --> 00:31:25,367 [Ronan] This new find revealed 668 00:31:25,367 --> 00:31:27,066 that the long-necked sauropods 669 00:31:27,066 --> 00:31:29,533 weren't the only visitors to this watering hole. 670 00:31:31,266 --> 00:31:34,266 And the others may have had murder on their mind. 671 00:31:45,100 --> 00:31:46,634 In the Wyoming Badlands, 672 00:31:46,634 --> 00:31:50,100 a 150-million-year-old crime scene 673 00:31:50,100 --> 00:31:52,066 is emerging from the ground. 674 00:31:53,166 --> 00:31:56,166 A team of paleontologists is trying to figure out 675 00:31:56,166 --> 00:31:59,100 how 10 giant sauropod dinosaurs 676 00:31:59,100 --> 00:32:01,166 met their end right here. 677 00:32:03,700 --> 00:32:06,634 Investigations have revealed that some of the dinosaurs 678 00:32:06,634 --> 00:32:10,533 may have been killed in sudden floods 679 00:32:10,533 --> 00:32:11,440 and also that their neck-lightening air sacs 680 00:32:11,440 --> 00:32:13,166 and also that their neck-lightening air sacs 681 00:32:13,166 --> 00:32:15,634 could risk severe infections. 682 00:32:19,000 --> 00:32:23,533 Now, Jen may have discovered a major new suspect... 683 00:32:23,533 --> 00:32:26,467 A skeleton that reveals the long-necked sauropods 684 00:32:26,467 --> 00:32:29,467 weren't the only visitors to this watering hole. 685 00:32:29,467 --> 00:32:32,166 Right here, we have a large theropod. 686 00:32:32,166 --> 00:32:34,867 We've got back, we've got hip, 687 00:32:34,867 --> 00:32:38,000 all the way back to a lovely tail. 688 00:32:38,000 --> 00:32:40,967 [Ronan] Lying just feet away from the emerging tail bones 689 00:32:40,967 --> 00:32:41,440 of a plant-eating sauropod, 690 00:32:41,440 --> 00:32:43,734 of a plant-eating sauropod, 691 00:32:43,734 --> 00:32:45,100 her diggers have uncovered 692 00:32:45,100 --> 00:32:47,533 the backbone of a ferocious carnivore. 693 00:32:48,634 --> 00:32:51,100 Jen thinks this may be a skeleton 694 00:32:51,100 --> 00:32:55,000 of the apex predator of the Jurassic Wild West, 695 00:32:55,000 --> 00:32:56,233 Allosaurus. 696 00:33:00,066 --> 00:33:02,967 [Ronan] Eighty million years before T. rex, 697 00:33:02,967 --> 00:33:06,634 allosaurus was the king of the Jurassic Frontier. 698 00:33:06,634 --> 00:33:08,100 [cooing] 699 00:33:08,100 --> 00:33:10,367 [Ronan] It attacked its prey with razor sharp, 700 00:33:10,367 --> 00:33:11,440 serrated teeth and powerful grasping arms. 701 00:33:11,440 --> 00:33:14,734 serrated teeth and powerful grasping arms. 702 00:33:17,867 --> 00:33:21,367 So was this watering hole the site of a bloody clash 703 00:33:21,367 --> 00:33:23,166 between predator and prey? 704 00:33:24,467 --> 00:33:26,967 And since both bodies fell here, 705 00:33:26,967 --> 00:33:28,367 who came out on top? 706 00:33:30,800 --> 00:33:35,000 To find out, Jen needs to study this apex predator. 707 00:33:35,000 --> 00:33:37,000 That means getting it out of the ground 708 00:33:37,000 --> 00:33:40,000 intact to look for signs of violence. 709 00:33:41,700 --> 00:33:45,100 But it's lying in a bed of super hard rock. 710 00:33:45,100 --> 00:33:46,634 We've actually broken rock saws 711 00:33:46,634 --> 00:33:48,166 and crowbars on this. 712 00:33:48,166 --> 00:33:50,634 So it's gonna take some special kinds of equipment. 713 00:33:53,166 --> 00:33:56,467 [Ronan] They've had to bring in an air-powered mini jackhammer 714 00:33:56,467 --> 00:33:58,066 to chip away at the stone. 715 00:33:59,467 --> 00:34:01,800 The first thing is just like feeling the vibrations 716 00:34:01,800 --> 00:34:03,000 and feeling a bit scared 717 00:34:03,000 --> 00:34:04,867 that you have something powerful in your hand. 718 00:34:04,867 --> 00:34:06,800 [Ronan] This tool brings its own danger. 719 00:34:07,867 --> 00:34:09,867 'Cause the scribes are powerful enough 720 00:34:09,867 --> 00:34:11,266 to go through sandstone, they, of course, 721 00:34:11,266 --> 00:34:11,440 are powerful enough to go through the fossil. 722 00:34:11,440 --> 00:34:13,266 are powerful enough to go through the fossil. 723 00:34:14,166 --> 00:34:15,967 [Ronan] It's painstaking work. 724 00:34:15,967 --> 00:34:21,533 Just one slip could shatter a 150-million-year-old relic, 725 00:34:21,533 --> 00:34:24,533 ruining the evidence of what killed this dinosaur. 726 00:34:27,634 --> 00:34:30,734 Jen's crack team is starting to make up time. 727 00:34:34,000 --> 00:34:37,867 But the badlands don't always play fair. 728 00:34:37,867 --> 00:34:39,000 Out of nowhere, 729 00:34:39,000 --> 00:34:41,166 squalls are whipping up sand and dust 730 00:34:41,166 --> 00:34:41,440 into an abrasive blast. 731 00:34:41,440 --> 00:34:43,867 into an abrasive blast. 732 00:34:43,867 --> 00:34:45,634 [woman] Yeah, it's got to come down now, guys. 733 00:34:45,634 --> 00:34:46,734 [woman 1] Okay. 734 00:34:46,734 --> 00:34:49,467 [woman] We got to move towards Jen and Liz. 735 00:34:49,467 --> 00:34:50,800 Yeah, back this way. 736 00:34:50,800 --> 00:34:53,967 There's another dust devil coming over, so. 737 00:34:53,967 --> 00:34:57,634 [Ronan] Dust devils can create winds up to 60 miles an hour. 738 00:34:57,634 --> 00:34:59,467 [woman] Can we get some help, guys? 739 00:34:59,467 --> 00:35:01,266 Thank you. 740 00:35:01,266 --> 00:35:04,100 [Ronan] Every fossil exposed to the winds is in danger 741 00:35:04,100 --> 00:35:07,467 from this sudden sandblasting storm. 742 00:35:07,467 --> 00:35:09,100 [woman] Welcome to Wyoming. 743 00:35:09,100 --> 00:35:10,734 Raise for a second. 744 00:35:10,734 --> 00:35:11,440 Yeah, yeah. 745 00:35:11,440 --> 00:35:11,867 Yeah, yeah. 746 00:35:11,867 --> 00:35:13,166 We're hanging on. 747 00:35:13,166 --> 00:35:14,967 Moving. 748 00:35:14,967 --> 00:35:16,800 Let your fingers hold in. 749 00:35:16,800 --> 00:35:18,100 [woman] [indistinct] 750 00:35:18,100 --> 00:35:20,166 Ooh, another one coming. 751 00:35:20,166 --> 00:35:22,000 Out of nowhere. 752 00:35:22,000 --> 00:35:23,967 [screaming] 753 00:35:23,967 --> 00:35:25,266 Ooh. 754 00:35:25,266 --> 00:35:28,734 [Ronan] Six years of work is at the mercy of the wild weather. 755 00:35:35,800 --> 00:35:37,533 But it's getting dangerous 756 00:35:37,533 --> 00:35:39,734 and they need to make a run for cover. 757 00:36:04,467 --> 00:36:08,000 Next morning, Jen arrives on site early 758 00:36:08,000 --> 00:36:09,734 to assess the damage. 759 00:36:20,266 --> 00:36:21,900 Come on, buddy. 760 00:36:21,900 --> 00:36:23,166 How'd you survive? 761 00:36:24,100 --> 00:36:25,266 Ooh. 762 00:36:26,166 --> 00:36:28,266 Oh, thank God. You look good. 763 00:36:28,266 --> 00:36:31,000 This fossil is already very exposed, 764 00:36:31,000 --> 00:36:35,000 so it could have gotten a lot of abrasion damage. 765 00:36:35,000 --> 00:36:37,166 Looks like maybe one piece broke. 766 00:36:37,166 --> 00:36:39,100 So, uh, that's the only thing that broke. 767 00:36:39,100 --> 00:36:40,333 That's good. 768 00:36:42,467 --> 00:36:44,266 [Ronan] They've had a lucky escape, 769 00:36:44,266 --> 00:36:46,867 but Jen isn't going to take any chances. 770 00:36:48,000 --> 00:36:50,333 Another dust storm could hit any time. 771 00:36:52,266 --> 00:36:56,166 They quickly cover the exposed bones in protective plaster. 772 00:36:59,266 --> 00:37:01,367 And as soon as the jacket is set... 773 00:37:01,367 --> 00:37:02,533 Yeah. 774 00:37:02,533 --> 00:37:05,533 Yeah, well, I think, I think this one's going to be tricky. 775 00:37:05,533 --> 00:37:07,800 ...it's time to get them out of the ground. 776 00:37:09,634 --> 00:37:11,440 First, they need to flip the jacket over. 777 00:37:11,440 --> 00:37:12,166 First, they need to flip the jacket over. 778 00:37:13,467 --> 00:37:15,000 [Jennifer] What I'm gonna have you do 779 00:37:15,000 --> 00:37:17,266 is, if you all of a sudden can't reach anymore, 780 00:37:17,266 --> 00:37:18,634 I'm here to help pull this part 781 00:37:18,634 --> 00:37:20,634 because we have the femur and all that there, 782 00:37:20,634 --> 00:37:22,000 so we have to be careful. 783 00:37:23,166 --> 00:37:25,533 [Ronan] But there's a chance the bones will fall out 784 00:37:25,533 --> 00:37:30,000 as they leave the surface, destroying precious evidence. 785 00:37:30,000 --> 00:37:32,533 [Jennifer] Phil's got the middle, Rachel's got this side. 786 00:37:32,533 --> 00:37:34,000 We're flipping it towards me. 787 00:37:35,266 --> 00:37:36,967 Things are gonna fall, probably. 788 00:37:36,967 --> 00:37:38,100 Don't freak out. 789 00:37:38,100 --> 00:37:39,266 We'll just cry later. 790 00:37:39,266 --> 00:37:40,533 Okay, Rachel, go. 791 00:37:40,533 --> 00:37:41,440 -[Rachel] Are we ready? -We are ready. 792 00:37:41,440 --> 00:37:42,100 -[Rachel] Are we ready? -We are ready. 793 00:37:42,100 --> 00:37:44,734 Three, two, one. 794 00:37:45,734 --> 00:37:46,867 Let's go. Go, go, go, go. 795 00:37:46,867 --> 00:37:48,433 Go, go, go, go, go, go, go, go, go! 796 00:37:49,800 --> 00:37:51,634 Oh, my God. That worked. 797 00:37:51,634 --> 00:37:54,166 Ah! Ah! 798 00:37:54,166 --> 00:37:56,000 -Yes. -[Ronan] They've done it. 799 00:37:56,000 --> 00:37:58,100 The jacket has held firm. 800 00:37:58,100 --> 00:37:59,166 Oh! 801 00:37:59,166 --> 00:38:00,266 Oh, my God. 802 00:38:00,266 --> 00:38:01,700 I thought so much was gonna fall out. 803 00:38:01,700 --> 00:38:03,467 [woman] I thought everything is gonna fall out. 804 00:38:03,467 --> 00:38:04,533 [woman] Yay! 805 00:38:04,533 --> 00:38:07,467 [Jennifer] Boom, that's how you flip an allosaurus. 806 00:38:07,467 --> 00:38:09,000 It looks pretty darn good. 807 00:38:13,467 --> 00:38:16,467 [Ronan] Jen's allosaurus could be the chief suspect 808 00:38:16,467 --> 00:38:19,900 in a multiple sauropod murder mystery. 809 00:38:19,900 --> 00:38:22,266 But was this predator powerful enough 810 00:38:22,266 --> 00:38:26,166 and fast enough to kill an 80-foot giant 811 00:38:26,166 --> 00:38:27,467 that they now know 812 00:38:27,467 --> 00:38:30,233 was as fast as an Olympic athlete? 813 00:38:37,867 --> 00:38:40,266 [Ronan] High in the desert of the Old West, 814 00:38:40,266 --> 00:38:41,533 a team of scientists 815 00:38:41,533 --> 00:38:43,900 is unearthing a remarkable story, 816 00:38:43,900 --> 00:38:48,467 frozen in time for 150 million years. 817 00:38:48,467 --> 00:38:51,533 They're discovering evidence of an epic showdown 818 00:38:51,533 --> 00:38:53,800 between predator, prey, 819 00:38:53,800 --> 00:38:58,166 the fearsome allosaurus and the gigantic sauropod. 820 00:38:59,867 --> 00:39:02,367 Their Jurassic crime scene places allosaurus 821 00:39:02,367 --> 00:39:04,280 as the main suspect in a case of dinosaur murder. 822 00:39:04,280 --> 00:39:05,800 as the main suspect in a case of dinosaur murder. 823 00:39:07,100 --> 00:39:09,233 But was it up to the task? 824 00:39:16,066 --> 00:39:17,367 Biomechanics expert, 825 00:39:17,367 --> 00:39:19,967 Pasha Van Bijlert wants to find out. 826 00:39:19,967 --> 00:39:21,900 He's investigating if allosaurus 827 00:39:21,900 --> 00:39:24,066 could catch a fleeing sauropod. 828 00:39:25,266 --> 00:39:29,533 He's pioneering a new method of calculating dinosaur speeds 829 00:39:29,533 --> 00:39:31,467 with a detailed computer model, 830 00:39:32,467 --> 00:39:34,280 based on the size of their bones 831 00:39:34,280 --> 00:39:34,367 based on the size of their bones 832 00:39:34,367 --> 00:39:36,100 and the bounce of their tails. 833 00:39:37,166 --> 00:39:39,634 Potentially, it might have been able to run very fast, 834 00:39:39,634 --> 00:39:41,166 but we don't know yet. 835 00:39:42,634 --> 00:39:44,634 [Ronan] He's found the ideal specimen 836 00:39:44,634 --> 00:39:46,967 to answer the question. 837 00:39:46,967 --> 00:39:49,634 Its leg bones are perfectly preserved. 838 00:39:50,634 --> 00:39:54,266 Right now, I'm measuring the left tibia, 839 00:39:54,266 --> 00:39:55,800 which is the left shin bone. 840 00:39:58,734 --> 00:40:01,734 It's about 23.5 inches. 841 00:40:01,734 --> 00:40:04,266 [Ronan] Pasha soon has all the measurements he needs 842 00:40:04,266 --> 00:40:04,280 to see how this predator moves 843 00:40:04,280 --> 00:40:06,967 to see how this predator moves 844 00:40:06,967 --> 00:40:11,367 for the first time in 150 million years. 845 00:40:11,367 --> 00:40:14,166 And to find out if allosaurus had the pace 846 00:40:14,166 --> 00:40:16,734 to catch a speedy sauropod. 847 00:40:16,734 --> 00:40:20,266 It's actually a bit more work than I would have liked. 848 00:40:20,266 --> 00:40:21,367 Right. 849 00:40:21,367 --> 00:40:23,734 [Ronan] Bill Sellers is teaming up with Pasha 850 00:40:23,734 --> 00:40:25,533 after discovering that sauropods 851 00:40:25,533 --> 00:40:28,166 could move at 15 miles an hour, 852 00:40:28,166 --> 00:40:30,233 as fast as Olympic athletes. 853 00:40:31,867 --> 00:40:33,734 Bill has researched the top speeds 854 00:40:33,734 --> 00:40:34,280 of different predatory dinosaurs 855 00:40:34,280 --> 00:40:35,734 of different predatory dinosaurs 856 00:40:35,734 --> 00:40:37,000 in past studies. 857 00:40:38,066 --> 00:40:40,533 You have these wonderful pointy sources, 858 00:40:40,533 --> 00:40:42,266 but we did a T. rex and allosaurus, 859 00:40:42,266 --> 00:40:43,634 various other theropods. 860 00:40:43,634 --> 00:40:45,533 We came up with top speeds 861 00:40:45,533 --> 00:40:48,800 from this of about 8 meters per second for the T. rex. 862 00:40:48,800 --> 00:40:50,266 Uh, so, it's the slowest. 863 00:40:50,266 --> 00:40:53,166 And then, just over 10 meters per second for the allosaurus. 864 00:40:53,166 --> 00:40:54,533 [Ronan] Using his models, 865 00:40:54,533 --> 00:40:56,533 Bill estimated that both predators 866 00:40:56,533 --> 00:41:00,100 might be able to run at nearly 20 miles an hour. 867 00:41:01,634 --> 00:41:04,280 But he discovered a big problem for big T. rex. 868 00:41:04,280 --> 00:41:05,967 But he discovered a big problem for big T. rex. 869 00:41:05,967 --> 00:41:10,066 It was only when we started looking at the bone loading 870 00:41:10,066 --> 00:41:13,467 that the really high speeds on the T. rex seemed unlikely 871 00:41:13,467 --> 00:41:17,066 because, as you know, when you run faster, 872 00:41:17,066 --> 00:41:18,734 you put more stress on the bone. 873 00:41:21,800 --> 00:41:25,000 [Ronan] Bill concluded that if T. rex tried to run, 874 00:41:25,000 --> 00:41:27,533 it would break its own legs. 875 00:41:27,533 --> 00:41:29,100 At best, it could manage 876 00:41:29,100 --> 00:41:32,166 little more than a 10-mile-an-hour walk, 877 00:41:32,166 --> 00:41:34,280 not even enough to catch a sauropod at full tilt. 878 00:41:34,280 --> 00:41:36,166 not even enough to catch a sauropod at full tilt. 879 00:41:36,166 --> 00:41:37,967 But can Pasha's prototype model 880 00:41:37,967 --> 00:41:41,000 reveal whether allosaurus was fast enough 881 00:41:41,000 --> 00:41:42,734 to catch a speeding sauropod? 882 00:41:43,634 --> 00:41:45,367 Allosaurus was further away 883 00:41:45,367 --> 00:41:48,066 from T. rex than T. rex was from us. 884 00:41:48,066 --> 00:41:49,266 So there are bound to be 885 00:41:49,266 --> 00:41:52,166 many differences between these animals. 886 00:41:52,166 --> 00:41:53,967 [Ronan] His research takes into account 887 00:41:53,967 --> 00:41:57,166 the built-in bounce of allosaurus' tail. 888 00:41:57,166 --> 00:42:00,066 He's shown that their tails had a natural rhythm 889 00:42:00,066 --> 00:42:01,634 like a pendulum, 890 00:42:01,634 --> 00:42:04,000 and he believes that if they stepped in time 891 00:42:04,000 --> 00:42:04,280 with that rhythm, they could walk much faster. 892 00:42:04,280 --> 00:42:07,634 with that rhythm, they could walk much faster. 893 00:42:07,634 --> 00:42:10,066 We treated the entire tail as this big 894 00:42:10,066 --> 00:42:11,867 rod suspended by springs. 895 00:42:11,867 --> 00:42:14,734 And if you find the natural frequency of this, 896 00:42:14,734 --> 00:42:16,634 um, I think this gives you a good idea 897 00:42:16,634 --> 00:42:18,166 of the step frequency. 898 00:42:18,166 --> 00:42:21,634 So, it's much more sort of pogo-stick-type locomotion, 899 00:42:21,634 --> 00:42:23,233 relying on elastic storage. 900 00:42:25,266 --> 00:42:28,266 [Ronan] With all the data entered into Pasha's test model, 901 00:42:28,266 --> 00:42:30,800 his allosaurus quickly gathers speed... 902 00:42:32,166 --> 00:42:34,280 And runs at an astonishing 25 miles an hour. 903 00:42:34,280 --> 00:42:35,734 And runs at an astonishing 25 miles an hour. 904 00:42:37,066 --> 00:42:38,734 Compared to T. rex, 905 00:42:38,734 --> 00:42:41,734 allosaurus was like a thoroughbred racehorse. 906 00:42:42,967 --> 00:42:44,367 It could easily outpace 907 00:42:44,367 --> 00:42:47,266 a retreating sauropod like diplodocus. 908 00:42:50,900 --> 00:42:54,266 The team has shown that sauropods and allosauruses 909 00:42:54,266 --> 00:42:57,066 both visited this watering hole 910 00:42:57,066 --> 00:42:59,734 and allosaurus had the speed to run down 911 00:42:59,734 --> 00:43:01,900 the giant herbivores. 912 00:43:01,900 --> 00:43:04,280 But maybe it wasn't just about speed, 913 00:43:04,280 --> 00:43:05,266 But maybe it wasn't just about speed, 914 00:43:05,266 --> 00:43:07,100 it was about surprise too. 915 00:43:08,100 --> 00:43:11,266 If so, how could a three-ton allosaurus 916 00:43:11,266 --> 00:43:12,533 creep up on a sauropod 917 00:43:12,533 --> 00:43:16,000 and launch an attack without being noticed? 918 00:43:17,467 --> 00:43:18,634 To answer that, 919 00:43:18,634 --> 00:43:21,533 scientists are studying living animals. 920 00:43:27,100 --> 00:43:29,433 At Whipsnade Zoo in England... 921 00:43:33,166 --> 00:43:34,280 Dr. Beth Mortimer 922 00:43:34,280 --> 00:43:36,066 Dr. Beth Mortimer 923 00:43:36,066 --> 00:43:39,367 and Dr.Tarje Nissen-Meyer 924 00:43:39,367 --> 00:43:41,533 are researching animal senses. 925 00:43:43,367 --> 00:43:45,634 Hopefully, they would come through the fence here 926 00:43:45,634 --> 00:43:46,967 and we can pick up the vibrations-- 927 00:43:46,967 --> 00:43:48,066 Hopefully. 928 00:43:48,066 --> 00:43:50,066 [Ronan] Beth and Tarje want to find out 929 00:43:50,066 --> 00:43:52,266 how today's biggest land animals 930 00:43:52,266 --> 00:43:56,100 detect threats like approaching predators. 931 00:43:56,100 --> 00:43:57,100 In particular, 932 00:43:57,100 --> 00:43:58,900 they want to see whether elephants 933 00:43:58,900 --> 00:44:01,734 can use a special sixth sense, 934 00:44:01,734 --> 00:44:04,166 which tunes in to seismic vibrations 935 00:44:04,166 --> 00:44:04,280 in the ground. 936 00:44:04,280 --> 00:44:05,634 in the ground. 937 00:44:05,634 --> 00:44:06,867 How far away do you think 938 00:44:06,867 --> 00:44:08,166 we'll be able to pick up the elephants? 939 00:44:08,166 --> 00:44:09,967 Huh, completely depends on what they're doing. 940 00:44:11,634 --> 00:44:13,166 Let me try here. 941 00:44:16,867 --> 00:44:18,967 [Ronan] Elephants are the modern-day equivalent 942 00:44:18,967 --> 00:44:21,266 of the Jurassic's giant sauropods. 943 00:44:22,266 --> 00:44:24,800 [Beth] The reason we studied elephants to start off 944 00:44:24,800 --> 00:44:27,634 with is because of their size. 945 00:44:27,634 --> 00:44:29,867 Because elephants are really large, 946 00:44:29,867 --> 00:44:32,533 they're generating a lot of motion in the ground, 947 00:44:32,533 --> 00:44:34,280 kind of mini earthquakes, if you like, 948 00:44:34,280 --> 00:44:34,800 kind of mini earthquakes, if you like, 949 00:44:34,800 --> 00:44:36,734 just as they're moving around. 950 00:44:36,734 --> 00:44:39,166 [Ronan] So, the way they detect threats may shed 951 00:44:39,166 --> 00:44:42,166 light on the way their ancient counterparts did. 952 00:44:43,266 --> 00:44:47,166 Ground vibrations are almost undetectable to humans, 953 00:44:47,166 --> 00:44:49,467 but can be picked up by elephants through 954 00:44:49,467 --> 00:44:51,634 special sensors in their feet. 955 00:44:53,100 --> 00:44:55,100 We've got sensors that are embedded 956 00:44:55,100 --> 00:44:58,000 in our skin, uh, which can detect vibrations, 957 00:44:58,000 --> 00:45:00,166 um, and elephants have a large number 958 00:45:00,166 --> 00:45:02,467 of these types of sensors on their feet. 959 00:45:04,266 --> 00:45:04,280 [Ronan] Beth and Tarje use a geophone, 960 00:45:04,280 --> 00:45:08,066 [Ronan] Beth and Tarje use a geophone, 961 00:45:08,066 --> 00:45:12,367 a sensor that can detect ultra-low vibrations. 962 00:45:12,367 --> 00:45:15,533 -[Tarje] The audible sound, are you recording them? -[Beth] Yes. 963 00:45:15,533 --> 00:45:17,533 We got the elephant coming over here, 964 00:45:17,533 --> 00:45:21,333 so we're just picking up, uh, the vibrations that she's making. 965 00:45:22,266 --> 00:45:25,467 [Ronan] In her fieldwork in Kenya, Africa, 966 00:45:25,467 --> 00:45:27,800 Beth has shown that seismic senses 967 00:45:27,800 --> 00:45:31,433 are a vital part of an elephant's defensive system. 968 00:45:34,166 --> 00:45:34,280 Her team records seismic ground vibrations 969 00:45:34,280 --> 00:45:37,166 Her team records seismic ground vibrations 970 00:45:37,166 --> 00:45:39,266 made by humans. 971 00:45:39,266 --> 00:45:42,533 When these vibrations are played back to elephants, 972 00:45:42,533 --> 00:45:44,066 they are able to interpret them 973 00:45:44,066 --> 00:45:46,967 as dangerous and quickly retreat. 974 00:45:51,367 --> 00:45:55,867 Elephants are not alone in tuning into this infrasonic world. 975 00:45:55,867 --> 00:45:59,367 Beth and Tarje have studied this kind of seismic detection 976 00:45:59,367 --> 00:46:01,467 in a number of different animals. 977 00:46:02,533 --> 00:46:04,280 And Tarje thinks that one making vibrations 978 00:46:04,280 --> 00:46:05,533 And Tarje thinks that one making vibrations 979 00:46:05,533 --> 00:46:10,266 as large as a sauropod would also evolve to detect them. 980 00:46:10,266 --> 00:46:12,734 [Tarje] So, we know many examples in the animal world 981 00:46:12,734 --> 00:46:14,867 that use seismic sensing. 982 00:46:14,867 --> 00:46:17,066 So, it's... I think, the best assumption to... 983 00:46:17,066 --> 00:46:19,867 to think, well, if there's a signal, um, 984 00:46:19,867 --> 00:46:21,734 why shouldn't they use it? 985 00:46:21,734 --> 00:46:24,100 [Ronan] It's likely these giants could have detected 986 00:46:24,100 --> 00:46:28,367 seismic signals from a very long way away. 987 00:46:28,367 --> 00:46:30,100 [Beth] Essentially, the bigger they are, 988 00:46:30,100 --> 00:46:33,533 the larger distances over which they can communicate. 989 00:46:33,533 --> 00:46:34,280 So, if you have a larger dinosaur source 990 00:46:34,280 --> 00:46:36,166 So, if you have a larger dinosaur source 991 00:46:36,166 --> 00:46:38,100 that might be generating a vibration 992 00:46:38,100 --> 00:46:40,100 through the ground, in theory, 993 00:46:40,100 --> 00:46:44,467 that's then information that could be propagating over larger distances. 994 00:46:47,967 --> 00:46:51,467 [Ronan] Just like their giant modern-day equivalents, 995 00:46:51,467 --> 00:46:54,467 Jurassic sauropods would most likely be alerted 996 00:46:54,467 --> 00:46:57,867 to any approaching allosaurus by the quaking ground, 997 00:46:57,867 --> 00:47:01,266 signaling every step the predator took 998 00:47:01,266 --> 00:47:04,280 and make their getaway long before they were in any real danger. 999 00:47:04,280 --> 00:47:06,533 and make their getaway long before they were in any real danger. 1000 00:47:06,533 --> 00:47:08,967 But allosaurus may have had one more 1001 00:47:08,967 --> 00:47:11,734 evolutionary trump card to play. 1002 00:47:15,066 --> 00:47:20,266 In Montevideo, Uruguay, Doctors, Nicolas Benech 1003 00:47:20,266 --> 00:47:23,367 and Ernesto Blanco are researching 1004 00:47:23,367 --> 00:47:29,266 how predators like allosaurus could fool their prey's defense systems. 1005 00:47:29,266 --> 00:47:34,280 They visualize seismic waves as ripples on the surface of a water tank. 1006 00:47:34,280 --> 00:47:34,634 They visualize seismic waves as ripples on the surface of a water tank. 1007 00:47:34,634 --> 00:47:38,433 [Nicolas speaking] 1008 00:47:39,533 --> 00:47:42,467 [Ronan] In their test, sauropod's round-shaped feet 1009 00:47:42,467 --> 00:47:46,467 cause vibrations to spread out equally in all directions. 1010 00:47:51,800 --> 00:47:56,100 But predators like allosaurus had triangular-shaped feet. 1011 00:47:56,100 --> 00:47:59,166 And when they took a step, most of the vibrations 1012 00:47:59,166 --> 00:48:01,266 traveled out to the sides. 1013 00:48:01,266 --> 00:48:04,266 The waves ahead of them were much weaker. 1014 00:48:04,266 --> 00:48:04,280 [Ernesto speaking] 1015 00:48:04,280 --> 00:48:08,100 [Ernesto speaking] 1016 00:48:11,166 --> 00:48:14,166 [Ronan] The scientists believe this effect gave predators 1017 00:48:14,166 --> 00:48:17,100 like allosaurus a crucial advantage. 1018 00:48:17,100 --> 00:48:21,867 Their sauropod prey couldn't tell how close they were, 1019 00:48:21,867 --> 00:48:26,000 which meant they could launch a lethal lightning attack. 1020 00:48:26,000 --> 00:48:29,100 [Ernesto speaking] [cooing] 1021 00:48:34,967 --> 00:48:37,266 [Ronan] It points the finger of suspicion back 1022 00:48:37,266 --> 00:48:41,533 at allosaurus, but it's circumstantial evidence. 1023 00:48:41,533 --> 00:48:45,533 To finally prove the sauropods at the Jurassic Mile were its victims, 1024 00:48:45,533 --> 00:48:50,634 the team needs to place these predators right next to their prey. 1025 00:48:54,066 --> 00:48:56,634 And back on site, Phil believes 1026 00:48:56,634 --> 00:49:00,467 he may have found clear-cut evidence that does just that. 1027 00:49:02,166 --> 00:49:03,900 Oh, look at that. 1028 00:49:08,533 --> 00:49:10,800 Beyond ridiculous. It's beautiful. 1029 00:49:13,100 --> 00:49:16,000 [Ronan] A whole host of dinosaur footfalls 1030 00:49:16,000 --> 00:49:19,867 preserved in Jurassic mud, including one filled in 1031 00:49:19,867 --> 00:49:23,634 with rock in the exact shape of the dinosaur's foot. 1032 00:49:26,100 --> 00:49:29,100 [Phil] These are the coolest thing on the whole site. 1033 00:49:29,100 --> 00:49:30,900 They're good ones. 1034 00:49:30,900 --> 00:49:34,280 [Phil] We've got footprints literally all over this whole surface. 1035 00:49:34,280 --> 00:49:35,000 [Phil] We've got footprints literally all over this whole surface. 1036 00:49:35,000 --> 00:49:38,800 These are some of the best trackways I have seen in the Jurassic. 1037 00:49:38,800 --> 00:49:40,533 They're absolutely beautiful. 1038 00:49:40,533 --> 00:49:45,367 [Ronan] Dinosaur footprints are every bit as rare as dinosaur bones, 1039 00:49:45,367 --> 00:49:49,533 but to find both in the same place is rarer still. 1040 00:49:49,533 --> 00:49:52,634 It's what makes the Jurassic Mile so special. 1041 00:49:52,634 --> 00:49:56,967 And it shows Phil, these animals did come to the same place, 1042 00:49:56,967 --> 00:49:59,367 maybe even at the same time. 1043 00:50:00,266 --> 00:50:01,734 From these shallow depressions, 1044 00:50:01,734 --> 00:50:03,266 we got both the hind feet 1045 00:50:03,266 --> 00:50:04,280 and the forefeet of these big plant eaters. 1046 00:50:04,280 --> 00:50:06,634 and the forefeet of these big plant eaters. 1047 00:50:06,634 --> 00:50:09,266 Right next to it, there are huge tracks 1048 00:50:09,266 --> 00:50:10,533 of a big predator, 1049 00:50:10,533 --> 00:50:11,734 which I think is pretty nice. 1050 00:50:11,734 --> 00:50:12,967 That's behavior. 1051 00:50:13,900 --> 00:50:15,967 Kind of the, the ultimate smoking gun. 1052 00:50:15,967 --> 00:50:18,266 It puts the animal at the scene of the crime. 1053 00:50:18,266 --> 00:50:20,367 [Ronan] Phil's evidence puts the predator 1054 00:50:20,367 --> 00:50:23,634 and prey together in the same place. 1055 00:50:23,634 --> 00:50:26,367 But if they were here at the same time, 1056 00:50:26,367 --> 00:50:31,734 a giant like diplodocus would not have gone down without a fight. 1057 00:50:31,734 --> 00:50:34,280 So, the team wants to know, is there any evidence of a struggle? 1058 00:50:34,280 --> 00:50:36,367 So, the team wants to know, is there any evidence of a struggle? 1059 00:50:36,367 --> 00:50:39,800 Did diplodocus battle for its life? 1060 00:50:49,166 --> 00:50:52,734 In the wilds of Wyoming, a dinosaur dig site 1061 00:50:52,734 --> 00:50:55,233 like no other was being unearthed. 1062 00:50:57,600 --> 00:51:00,266 It tells the story of a giant sauropod 1063 00:51:00,266 --> 00:51:04,467 facing off against the deadly predator, allosaurus. 1064 00:51:04,467 --> 00:51:08,600 Fossil evidence has put the hunter at the scene of the crime. 1065 00:51:08,600 --> 00:51:11,266 But was it really responsible for the deaths 1066 00:51:11,266 --> 00:51:13,266 of the giant herbivores, 1067 00:51:13,266 --> 00:51:14,240 or were sauropods able to defend themselves? 1068 00:51:14,240 --> 00:51:17,467 or were sauropods able to defend themselves? 1069 00:51:19,700 --> 00:51:22,900 Lower down the hill, Jen's team has found clues 1070 00:51:22,900 --> 00:51:26,000 of what could be a defensive weapon. 1071 00:51:26,000 --> 00:51:29,533 The first bones of an enormous sauropod tail. 1072 00:51:29,533 --> 00:51:31,700 [Jennifer] One of the very interesting discoveries 1073 00:51:31,700 --> 00:51:34,634 we have of this year that was only found a couple of days ago. 1074 00:51:34,634 --> 00:51:37,500 So, we've got a tail going into the wall. 1075 00:51:37,500 --> 00:51:40,100 So, this is something we really want to focus on this year. 1076 00:51:40,100 --> 00:51:43,266 [Ronan] A sauropod's tail could exceed 25 feet 1077 00:51:43,266 --> 00:51:44,240 in length and weigh 5,000 pounds. 1078 00:51:44,240 --> 00:51:46,900 in length and weigh 5,000 pounds. 1079 00:51:46,900 --> 00:51:50,900 Right now, we have one, two, three, four, 1080 00:51:50,900 --> 00:51:53,600 five, six, seven is poking out. 1081 00:51:53,600 --> 00:51:56,900 They can have about 80 bones in just the tail. 1082 00:51:56,900 --> 00:51:59,266 [Ronan] The tail was more than five feet thick 1083 00:51:59,266 --> 00:52:02,100 at the base and tapered down to the thickness 1084 00:52:02,100 --> 00:52:04,467 of a pencil at the tip. 1085 00:52:04,467 --> 00:52:06,700 [Jennifer] And the good news is they're getting larger. 1086 00:52:06,700 --> 00:52:09,266 They're going from the size of my pinky to something 1087 00:52:09,266 --> 00:52:12,000 that's gonna be like serving plate size. 1088 00:52:12,000 --> 00:52:14,240 [Ronan] For decades, paleontologists have wondered 1089 00:52:14,240 --> 00:52:14,634 [Ronan] For decades, paleontologists have wondered 1090 00:52:14,634 --> 00:52:19,000 why sauropods had such long whip like tails. 1091 00:52:19,000 --> 00:52:21,533 Was it part of their defensive armory? 1092 00:52:27,100 --> 00:52:31,500 In Seattle, Washington, a team is trying to find out. 1093 00:52:31,500 --> 00:52:35,533 They're headed up by tech pioneer, Dr. Nathan Myhrvold. 1094 00:52:36,967 --> 00:52:39,800 [Nathan] I was always fascinated by dinosaurs as a child. 1095 00:52:39,800 --> 00:52:44,166 And ever since the discovery of the sauropod dinosaurs, 1096 00:52:44,166 --> 00:52:44,240 people wondered what was this enormous tail for. 1097 00:52:44,240 --> 00:52:48,266 people wondered what was this enormous tail for. 1098 00:52:48,266 --> 00:52:50,967 [Ronan] Nathan's company specializes in solving 1099 00:52:50,967 --> 00:52:54,800 scientific mysteries by thinking outside the box. 1100 00:52:56,100 --> 00:52:59,166 To decipher the riddle of the sauropod tail, 1101 00:52:59,166 --> 00:53:01,367 they came up with this. 1102 00:53:03,367 --> 00:53:07,100 [Nathan] So, this is a physical model of a tail 1103 00:53:07,100 --> 00:53:08,600 of a sauropod dinosaur. 1104 00:53:08,600 --> 00:53:13,100 Specifically, it's an exact replica of an apatosaurus 1105 00:53:13,100 --> 00:53:14,240 that's in the American Museum of Natural History. 1106 00:53:14,240 --> 00:53:15,900 that's in the American Museum of Natural History. 1107 00:53:15,900 --> 00:53:19,166 So... So, this is a one-quarter scale model. 1108 00:53:19,166 --> 00:53:23,066 So, it's around 12-feet long. 1109 00:53:24,600 --> 00:53:27,533 [Ronan] Even without any soft tissue, 1110 00:53:27,533 --> 00:53:29,600 the lightweight aluminum construction 1111 00:53:29,600 --> 00:53:34,166 is as close to the real thing as Nathan's engineering team can create. 1112 00:53:37,600 --> 00:53:40,867 The scale mass is correct within less than a percent. 1113 00:53:40,867 --> 00:53:42,467 So, it's very accurate. 1114 00:53:42,467 --> 00:53:44,240 [Ronan] Now, it's time to see what this model can do. 1115 00:53:44,240 --> 00:53:47,266 [Ronan] Now, it's time to see what this model can do. 1116 00:53:47,266 --> 00:53:50,467 Immediately, Nathan detects a problem with the fine, 1117 00:53:50,467 --> 00:53:52,634 delicate tip of the tail. 1118 00:53:53,500 --> 00:53:55,100 [Nathan] There are dinosaurs that use tails 1119 00:53:55,100 --> 00:53:59,367 as defensive weapons, and they almost always have clubs or spikes 1120 00:53:59,367 --> 00:54:02,266 or something really nasty on the end to get something with. 1121 00:54:02,266 --> 00:54:05,100 The trouble is the end of it is really skinny, 1122 00:54:05,100 --> 00:54:06,734 it's less than a garden hose. 1123 00:54:06,734 --> 00:54:10,166 It didn't seem plausible to me that they were a weapon. 1124 00:54:10,166 --> 00:54:13,600 [Ronan] He believes the tail wasn't designed for fighting. 1125 00:54:13,600 --> 00:54:14,240 Instead, he wonders if they may have had 1126 00:54:14,240 --> 00:54:16,500 Instead, he wonders if they may have had 1127 00:54:16,500 --> 00:54:21,066 a much less violent purpose, communication. 1128 00:54:21,066 --> 00:54:24,066 Nathan believes the tail's shape could make it perfect 1129 00:54:24,066 --> 00:54:26,000 to act like a bullwhip. 1130 00:54:26,000 --> 00:54:30,367 Cracked with enough force to create a sonic boom. 1131 00:54:30,367 --> 00:54:32,700 So, in the same way that a human can pick up 1132 00:54:32,700 --> 00:54:36,266 a bullwhip and with a very ordinary arm can make it crack, 1133 00:54:36,266 --> 00:54:39,166 I think this would require a negligible amount of energy 1134 00:54:39,166 --> 00:54:40,867 in the sauropod's part. 1135 00:54:43,166 --> 00:54:44,240 [Ronan] High-speed cameras record the tail in action. 1136 00:54:44,240 --> 00:54:46,533 [Ronan] High-speed cameras record the tail in action. 1137 00:54:50,266 --> 00:54:53,266 So, here, we are moving the tail. 1138 00:54:53,266 --> 00:54:55,634 And what's gonna happen is that tail... 1139 00:54:55,634 --> 00:54:59,166 this part here will get flipped up, and boom, 1140 00:54:59,166 --> 00:55:02,166 there it gets flipped up and that would be the sonic boom. 1141 00:55:02,166 --> 00:55:04,367 [Ronan] Nathan calculates that the tip of the tail 1142 00:55:04,367 --> 00:55:09,734 exceeds 760 miles per hour, faster than the speed of sound. 1143 00:55:10,700 --> 00:55:13,000 Scaled up to sauropod size, 1144 00:55:13,000 --> 00:55:14,240 the sonic boom it will create may have traveled for miles. 1145 00:55:14,240 --> 00:55:17,100 the sonic boom it will create may have traveled for miles. 1146 00:55:17,100 --> 00:55:18,533 It would be as loud as 1147 00:55:18,533 --> 00:55:21,533 the guns on a big battleship going off, 1148 00:55:21,533 --> 00:55:23,100 an enormous cannon. 1149 00:55:23,100 --> 00:55:25,467 Kaboom! 1150 00:55:25,467 --> 00:55:28,467 [Ronan] Nathan thinks sauropods may have used their tails 1151 00:55:28,467 --> 00:55:30,467 to get a dinosaur date. 1152 00:55:32,100 --> 00:55:33,600 [Nathan] I think it's a good chance 1153 00:55:33,600 --> 00:55:37,066 that they used this amazingly loud noise 1154 00:55:37,066 --> 00:55:39,467 that they create with their tails 1155 00:55:39,467 --> 00:55:41,467 as a form of competition. 1156 00:55:41,467 --> 00:55:43,533 You know, "Kaboom! See? 1157 00:55:43,533 --> 00:55:44,240 I can really crack my tail." 1158 00:55:44,240 --> 00:55:45,100 I can really crack my tail." 1159 00:55:45,100 --> 00:55:47,634 And then, the next guy says, "Oh, yeah, you heard that?" 1160 00:55:47,634 --> 00:55:49,367 Kaboom. 1161 00:55:49,367 --> 00:55:52,100 [Ronan] Nathan doesn't claim his is the only answer 1162 00:55:52,100 --> 00:55:54,734 to the mystery of the sauropod's tail. 1163 00:55:56,266 --> 00:55:57,600 [Nathan] Just a question of, okay, 1164 00:55:57,600 --> 00:56:00,066 what does the mathematics say? 1165 00:56:00,066 --> 00:56:02,533 If we do an accurate engineering model, 1166 00:56:03,467 --> 00:56:04,967 what is the answer? 1167 00:56:04,967 --> 00:56:07,000 The answer comes out, of course, 1168 00:56:07,000 --> 00:56:09,000 that it cracks supersonically. [cooing] 1169 00:56:10,467 --> 00:56:13,100 [Ronan] If they didn't use their tails as weapons, 1170 00:56:13,100 --> 00:56:14,240 their only real defense against attacking 1171 00:56:14,240 --> 00:56:15,467 their only real defense against attacking 1172 00:56:15,467 --> 00:56:19,100 Allosauruses was their size. 1173 00:56:19,100 --> 00:56:22,734 So, at more than 10 times the weight of its alleged assailant 1174 00:56:22,734 --> 00:56:27,066 was a sauropod just too big for an allosaurus to bring down. 1175 00:56:28,066 --> 00:56:30,266 This missing piece of the predatory puzzle 1176 00:56:30,266 --> 00:56:31,967 could change everything. 1177 00:56:31,967 --> 00:56:35,433 Allosaurus may not have hunted alone. 1178 00:56:39,367 --> 00:56:43,634 Victoria is examining evidence that could solve that mystery. 1179 00:56:45,867 --> 00:56:47,000 [woman] Yeah. 1180 00:56:47,000 --> 00:56:48,266 [Victoria] Hey, guys. What you got? 1181 00:56:48,266 --> 00:56:49,600 Hey. 1182 00:56:49,600 --> 00:56:52,533 [Ronan] Inside this large stone slab are the jumbled 1183 00:56:52,533 --> 00:56:55,233 remains of several allosauruses. 1184 00:56:56,367 --> 00:56:58,467 Within this block, we have at least two, 1185 00:56:58,467 --> 00:57:00,533 maybe three allosaurus. 1186 00:57:00,533 --> 00:57:05,800 We've got a leg bone here and then another leg bone up there. 1187 00:57:05,800 --> 00:57:11,100 And one is significantly smaller than at least one other one. 1188 00:57:11,100 --> 00:57:14,240 So, the smaller one was probably a juvenile. 1189 00:57:14,240 --> 00:57:15,000 So, the smaller one was probably a juvenile. 1190 00:57:15,000 --> 00:57:17,266 [Ronan] Victoria thinks it's no coincidence 1191 00:57:17,266 --> 00:57:20,367 that several predators are buried together here. 1192 00:57:20,367 --> 00:57:21,634 If they died together, 1193 00:57:21,634 --> 00:57:25,166 it may mean they lived together in family groups. 1194 00:57:26,166 --> 00:57:29,600 That raises the possibility that they hunted in packs 1195 00:57:29,600 --> 00:57:31,900 to take on more massive prey. 1196 00:57:33,734 --> 00:57:36,500 [Victoria] To take down one of those sauropods 1197 00:57:36,500 --> 00:57:40,467 would have been incredibly difficult 1198 00:57:40,467 --> 00:57:42,700 because they're 10 times 1199 00:57:42,700 --> 00:57:44,240 or more than the size of these allosaurus. 1200 00:57:44,240 --> 00:57:46,166 or more than the size of these allosaurus. 1201 00:57:46,166 --> 00:57:49,700 So, the question is, would the allosaurus 1202 00:57:49,700 --> 00:57:51,266 have tried to take down an adult? 1203 00:57:51,266 --> 00:57:53,266 And if they did, they would probably 1204 00:57:53,266 --> 00:57:56,166 have to do it together and work as a pack. 1205 00:58:01,266 --> 00:58:03,700 [Ronan] Hunting in packs would give allosaurus 1206 00:58:03,700 --> 00:58:09,100 a much better chance of bringing down a 16-ton sauropod. 1207 00:58:09,100 --> 00:58:11,734 But to nail this predator as the killer, 1208 00:58:11,734 --> 00:58:14,240 the team needs evidence of a murder weapon. 1209 00:58:14,240 --> 00:58:15,100 the team needs evidence of a murder weapon. 1210 00:58:15,100 --> 00:58:17,266 [Jennifer] These are marks left from teeth, 1211 00:58:17,266 --> 00:58:19,166 from the meat-eating dinosaurs. 1212 00:58:19,166 --> 00:58:20,500 So, we're kind of finding the... 1213 00:58:20,500 --> 00:58:22,233 the bullet wound and the bullet. 1214 00:58:28,867 --> 00:58:31,600 [Ronan] At a secret location in Wyoming, 1215 00:58:31,600 --> 00:58:34,166 the scene of a Jurassic murder mystery 1216 00:58:34,166 --> 00:58:37,634 is revealing an astonishing array of fossil evidence. 1217 00:58:39,000 --> 00:58:41,734 Clues that could solve the mysterious deaths 1218 00:58:41,734 --> 00:58:44,900 of 10 giant sauropod dinosaurs. 1219 00:58:48,066 --> 00:58:52,533 Chief suspects, a marauding pack of allosauruses. 1220 00:58:58,500 --> 00:59:00,634 [indistinct chatter] 1221 00:59:02,600 --> 00:59:05,800 [Ronan] Now, Jen is looking for a smoking gun. 1222 00:59:06,634 --> 00:59:11,867 Nice parallel scraping looking lines into it. 1223 00:59:11,867 --> 00:59:15,800 [Ronan] She's an expert on ancient injuries in fossilized bones... 1224 00:59:18,266 --> 00:59:21,367 and she's found something that puts an allosaurus pack 1225 00:59:21,367 --> 00:59:25,900 as the prime suspects in at least one giant dinosaur death. 1226 00:59:27,266 --> 00:59:30,367 These are marks left from teeth, from theropods, 1227 00:59:30,367 --> 00:59:32,533 so, the meat-eating dinosaurs' 1228 00:59:32,533 --> 00:59:34,734 tooth marks are decent size. 1229 00:59:34,734 --> 00:59:37,066 So, it could be an allosaurus. 1230 00:59:37,066 --> 00:59:38,233 So, one of our... 1231 00:59:38,233 --> 00:59:41,734 our main culprits for who's snacking on our sauropod here. 1232 00:59:43,100 --> 00:59:46,467 [Ronan] Many of the sauropod bones here at the Jurassic Mile 1233 00:59:46,467 --> 00:59:50,066 are scarred with scrapes from predator teeth. 1234 00:59:50,066 --> 00:59:54,100 And there's even stronger evidence lying just nearby. 1235 00:59:55,367 --> 00:59:56,040 [Jennifer] So, Victoria found this lovely tooth here 1236 00:59:56,040 --> 00:59:58,166 [Jennifer] So, Victoria found this lovely tooth here 1237 00:59:58,166 --> 01:00:00,266 from a theropod, a meat-eating dinosaur. 1238 01:00:00,266 --> 01:00:02,266 And it's probably an allosaurus. 1239 01:00:02,266 --> 01:00:04,734 So, we're kind of finding, like, the... 1240 01:00:04,734 --> 01:00:07,266 the bullet wound and the bullet. 1241 01:00:07,266 --> 01:00:09,634 [Ronan] These razor-sharp, serrated teeth 1242 01:00:09,634 --> 01:00:13,500 were highly specialized, flesh-tearing tools. 1243 01:00:13,500 --> 01:00:18,734 And like, modern crocodiles, allosaurus would constantly replace them. 1244 01:00:18,734 --> 01:00:22,166 So, you could lose a couple of teeth in one meal. 1245 01:00:22,166 --> 01:00:24,600 Some of these guys are still fairly sharp 1246 01:00:24,600 --> 01:00:25,867 when you pop them out of the ground, 1247 01:00:25,867 --> 01:00:26,040 even though they're millions of years old. 1248 01:00:26,040 --> 01:00:27,600 even though they're millions of years old. 1249 01:00:27,600 --> 01:00:31,734 Holding a tooth from an allosaurus, every time I do it, 1250 01:00:31,734 --> 01:00:34,533 I still have that little kid go hee-hee, hee-hee, 1251 01:00:34,533 --> 01:00:35,634 inside, and it... 1252 01:00:35,634 --> 01:00:38,066 it's, it just reminds me of one of the reasons 1253 01:00:38,066 --> 01:00:39,433 why I got into paleontology. 1254 01:00:40,467 --> 01:00:43,266 [Ronan] And there's not just one tooth alongside 1255 01:00:43,266 --> 01:00:45,367 this sauropod skeleton. 1256 01:00:45,367 --> 01:00:46,467 [Jennifer] We have at least 1257 01:00:46,467 --> 01:00:48,500 50 teeth from this site. 1258 01:00:48,500 --> 01:00:50,634 We've got a lot of nibbling going on. 1259 01:00:50,634 --> 01:00:52,867 You know, what's, what's the reason? 1260 01:00:52,867 --> 01:00:55,266 Is it that everybody came in for one big feast? 1261 01:00:55,266 --> 01:00:56,040 So, the family is coming over for Sunday roast kind of deal. 1262 01:00:56,040 --> 01:00:58,634 So, the family is coming over for Sunday roast kind of deal. 1263 01:00:59,867 --> 01:01:03,166 [Ronan] Skeletons of multiple allosauruses buried together 1264 01:01:03,166 --> 01:01:06,166 and dozens of teeth from different animals. 1265 01:01:08,066 --> 01:01:11,066 This evidence could add up to a feeding frenzy 1266 01:01:11,066 --> 01:01:13,266 by a whole pack of predators. 1267 01:01:15,166 --> 01:01:18,734 But this theory opens up a new mystery. 1268 01:01:18,734 --> 01:01:21,467 Only the most intelligent of modern animals 1269 01:01:21,467 --> 01:01:25,166 are capable of coordinating pack hunting. 1270 01:01:25,166 --> 01:01:26,040 So, did allosaurus have the smarts to team up against its prey? 1271 01:01:26,040 --> 01:01:30,266 So, did allosaurus have the smarts to team up against its prey? 1272 01:01:30,266 --> 01:01:34,800 To find out, paleontologists need to get inside its head. 1273 01:01:39,500 --> 01:01:41,233 In Athens, Ohio... 1274 01:01:44,600 --> 01:01:47,266 Prof. Larry Witmer has amassed 1275 01:01:47,266 --> 01:01:49,500 one of the world's most impressive collections 1276 01:01:49,500 --> 01:01:54,266 of dinosaur skulls and casts, which he uses to study 1277 01:01:54,266 --> 01:01:56,040 their brain anatomy. 1278 01:01:56,040 --> 01:01:56,634 their brain anatomy. 1279 01:01:56,634 --> 01:01:58,500 This is the skull of allosaurus, 1280 01:01:58,500 --> 01:02:01,734 a very famous specimen known as Big Al. 1281 01:02:01,734 --> 01:02:04,734 I mean, just looking at the skull, we can tell a lot. 1282 01:02:07,634 --> 01:02:12,233 [Ronan] Larry uses a CT scanner to look inside skulls. 1283 01:02:14,000 --> 01:02:17,166 [Larry] CT scanning has revolutionized our field, 1284 01:02:17,166 --> 01:02:20,000 but we can actually look through the bone. 1285 01:02:27,266 --> 01:02:29,066 [Ronan] The scanner measures differences 1286 01:02:29,066 --> 01:02:34,066 in density and builds up a 3D model of the internal structure. 1287 01:02:42,000 --> 01:02:43,734 [Larry] We can actually work our way back 1288 01:02:43,734 --> 01:02:45,500 to where that brain would be. 1289 01:02:45,500 --> 01:02:49,467 And so, we can actually see the brain cavity. 1290 01:02:51,066 --> 01:02:55,533 It looks kind of small inside this really big skull. 1291 01:02:56,734 --> 01:03:00,367 [Ronan] This relatively small brain cavity in a large skull 1292 01:03:00,367 --> 01:03:03,500 is common amongst dinosaurs. 1293 01:03:03,500 --> 01:03:08,266 This is why some scientists have wondered if dinosaurs were dumb. 1294 01:03:08,266 --> 01:03:12,266 But Larry believes that size isn't everything. 1295 01:03:12,266 --> 01:03:16,100 So, we now know that brain size is important 1296 01:03:16,100 --> 01:03:19,066 and how big your brain is relative to your body. 1297 01:03:19,066 --> 01:03:22,166 What we've discovered is that actually the structure 1298 01:03:22,166 --> 01:03:24,533 of the brain itself winds up being potentially 1299 01:03:24,533 --> 01:03:26,040 even more important. 1300 01:03:26,040 --> 01:03:26,867 even more important. 1301 01:03:26,867 --> 01:03:30,066 [Ronan] Larry wants to know what's going on inside 1302 01:03:30,066 --> 01:03:32,000 an allosaurus' brain. 1303 01:03:32,000 --> 01:03:36,367 To find out, he's turning to birds. 1304 01:03:36,367 --> 01:03:40,266 Birds are the direct descendant of dinosaurs like allosaurus. 1305 01:03:40,266 --> 01:03:44,867 And just like their ancestors, they have very small brains. 1306 01:03:44,867 --> 01:03:47,467 But that doesn't stop them from being clever, 1307 01:03:47,467 --> 01:03:51,266 versatile hunters and even using tools. 1308 01:03:51,266 --> 01:03:55,500 Birds, it turns out, have pretty remarkable cognitive ability, 1309 01:03:55,500 --> 01:03:56,040 something we've discovered, um, and really in the past 10 or 15 years. 1310 01:03:56,040 --> 01:04:00,533 something we've discovered, um, and really in the past 10 or 15 years. 1311 01:04:00,533 --> 01:04:03,066 [Ronan] The secret of a bird brain success 1312 01:04:03,066 --> 01:04:05,967 is in its compact structure. 1313 01:04:05,967 --> 01:04:09,266 [Larry] They actually have a huge number of neurons 1314 01:04:09,266 --> 01:04:11,266 in that brain, but they're smaller 1315 01:04:11,266 --> 01:04:15,467 and packed together, much more tightly than what we see in mammals. 1316 01:04:15,467 --> 01:04:18,967 [Ronan] By cramming more brain cells into a small space, 1317 01:04:18,967 --> 01:04:20,634 they have greater thinking power 1318 01:04:20,634 --> 01:04:22,800 than was ever thought possible. 1319 01:04:23,967 --> 01:04:26,040 Larry's scans revealed that allosaurus brains 1320 01:04:26,040 --> 01:04:26,500 Larry's scans revealed that allosaurus brains 1321 01:04:26,500 --> 01:04:30,100 had some strikingly birdlike features. 1322 01:04:30,100 --> 01:04:32,634 We used to look at a brain like this and sort of say, like, 1323 01:04:32,634 --> 01:04:35,266 "Well, there's probably not a whole lot going on here." 1324 01:04:35,266 --> 01:04:38,634 But the reality is allosaurus probably 1325 01:04:38,634 --> 01:04:40,634 had much greater cognitive abilities 1326 01:04:40,634 --> 01:04:43,867 than what we would have ever thought in the past. 1327 01:04:43,867 --> 01:04:46,634 [Ronan] This could have made it a sophisticated hunter. 1328 01:04:47,867 --> 01:04:50,500 Perhaps even capable of working in teams 1329 01:04:50,500 --> 01:04:53,734 to bring down a 16-ton sauropod. 1330 01:04:55,066 --> 01:04:56,040 [Larry] Was allosaurus able to solve problems, 1331 01:04:56,040 --> 01:04:57,867 [Larry] Was allosaurus able to solve problems, 1332 01:04:57,867 --> 01:05:01,000 was it able to defeat the defenses of... 1333 01:05:01,000 --> 01:05:04,734 of the prey species and be an effective predator 1334 01:05:04,734 --> 01:05:06,734 because it was smart? 1335 01:05:06,734 --> 01:05:10,533 Was it capable of things like cooperative hunting? 1336 01:05:10,533 --> 01:05:13,166 You know, 15 years ago, we would have said, 1337 01:05:13,166 --> 01:05:14,867 "No, absolutely not." 1338 01:05:14,867 --> 01:05:16,800 But now we're kind of going, "Maybe." 1339 01:05:18,867 --> 01:05:21,066 [Ronan] Fossil evidence from the Jurassic Mile, 1340 01:05:21,066 --> 01:05:24,734 together with research from around the world 1341 01:05:24,734 --> 01:05:26,040 is building a compelling case that 1342 01:05:26,040 --> 01:05:27,634 is building a compelling case that 1343 01:05:27,634 --> 01:05:31,066 pack hunting allosauruses might have been responsible 1344 01:05:31,066 --> 01:05:33,734 for the deaths of the super-sized sauropods 1345 01:05:33,734 --> 01:05:35,500 buried at the site. 1346 01:05:35,500 --> 01:05:37,867 But before they settle on this solution, 1347 01:05:37,867 --> 01:05:41,367 Jen's team has one more lead to investigate. 1348 01:05:41,367 --> 01:05:45,100 One that could blow the whole case wide open. 1349 01:05:54,500 --> 01:05:56,700 At a secret location in Wyoming, 1350 01:05:56,700 --> 01:05:59,166 the scene of a Jurassic murder mystery, 1351 01:05:59,166 --> 01:06:03,533 a crack team has unearthed an astonishing array of fossil evidence. 1352 01:06:05,867 --> 01:06:09,734 The chief suspect is a pack of marauding allosauruses. 1353 01:06:10,967 --> 01:06:13,634 But did these ferocious predators really 1354 01:06:13,634 --> 01:06:16,333 have the upper hand in this showdown? 1355 01:06:22,066 --> 01:06:24,333 Jen is trying to find out. 1356 01:06:25,500 --> 01:06:28,500 She thinks that allosaurus may well have shared 1357 01:06:28,500 --> 01:06:32,634 many behaviors with successful modern predators. 1358 01:06:32,634 --> 01:06:33,867 [Jennifer] It's just remembering 1359 01:06:33,867 --> 01:06:35,967 that dinosaurs are animals. 1360 01:06:35,967 --> 01:06:38,367 Because we didn't get to observe these animals, 1361 01:06:38,367 --> 01:06:41,700 we have to use what we, we can observe in nature today 1362 01:06:41,700 --> 01:06:44,000 to understand what went on in the past. 1363 01:06:44,000 --> 01:06:48,467 [Ronan] Nature follows rules that stretch over the eons of time. 1364 01:06:50,066 --> 01:06:50,840 And less than 150 miles away in Yellowstone National Park 1365 01:06:50,840 --> 01:06:55,266 And less than 150 miles away in Yellowstone National Park 1366 01:06:55,266 --> 01:06:57,600 live predators that seem to have a lot 1367 01:06:57,600 --> 01:07:02,166 in common with allosaurus, gray wolves. 1368 01:07:02,166 --> 01:07:05,000 They, too, are intelligent pack hunters 1369 01:07:05,000 --> 01:07:07,433 and are often dwarfed by their prey. 1370 01:07:08,367 --> 01:07:11,166 The 2,000-pound American plains bison 1371 01:07:11,166 --> 01:07:13,634 is the wolves' most dangerous quarry, 1372 01:07:13,634 --> 01:07:15,867 even when they're working as a pack. 1373 01:07:15,867 --> 01:07:18,634 But according to brand new research, 1374 01:07:18,634 --> 01:07:20,840 the predators are smart enough to avoid a risky hunt. 1375 01:07:20,840 --> 01:07:22,734 the predators are smart enough to avoid a risky hunt. 1376 01:07:22,734 --> 01:07:26,000 Like in summer, bison rutting season, 1377 01:07:26,000 --> 01:07:28,900 males fight to the death over mates. 1378 01:07:30,867 --> 01:07:33,000 Wolves wisely wait it out. 1379 01:07:33,000 --> 01:07:38,900 And when opportunity knocks, switch up their behavior from hunter to scavenger. 1380 01:07:41,967 --> 01:07:45,500 A bison is more than ten times the size of a wolf, 1381 01:07:45,500 --> 01:07:49,100 just like allosaurus, matching up to a sauropod. 1382 01:07:49,100 --> 01:07:50,734 [Jennifer] We've got very large sauropods 1383 01:07:50,734 --> 01:07:50,840 that can get up to 90 feet long. 1384 01:07:50,840 --> 01:07:53,100 that can get up to 90 feet long. 1385 01:07:53,100 --> 01:07:56,166 In this landscape of giants, the allosaurus 1386 01:07:56,166 --> 01:07:58,967 is a little guy compared to everybody else. 1387 01:07:58,967 --> 01:08:01,367 [Ronan] And to Jen, it's likely allosaurus 1388 01:08:01,367 --> 01:08:04,734 may have shared wolves' cautious approach. 1389 01:08:04,734 --> 01:08:07,867 If this is the case, her team may not be looking 1390 01:08:07,867 --> 01:08:10,166 at evidence of a murder here. 1391 01:08:10,166 --> 01:08:13,700 [Jennifer] And so, we've got a lot of these little marks from the teeth. 1392 01:08:13,700 --> 01:08:16,634 But if it happened right before it died, 1393 01:08:16,634 --> 01:08:20,840 right after it died, that gets to be a more of a CSI question. 1394 01:08:20,840 --> 01:08:22,467 right after it died, that gets to be a more of a CSI question. 1395 01:08:23,600 --> 01:08:25,367 [Ronan] To expert eyes, the injuries 1396 01:08:25,367 --> 01:08:28,166 on the sauropod skeletons will look different 1397 01:08:28,166 --> 01:08:31,634 if they were caused by scavenging or frenzied attack. 1398 01:08:33,266 --> 01:08:36,367 But it's almost impossible to tell in the field. 1399 01:08:36,367 --> 01:08:39,433 The remains will need a careful autopsy. 1400 01:08:43,367 --> 01:08:48,700 For that, the bones must be taken away for cleaning and preparation, 1401 01:08:48,700 --> 01:08:50,840 which means an 1800-mile journey 1402 01:08:50,840 --> 01:08:51,700 which means an 1800-mile journey 1403 01:08:51,700 --> 01:08:54,734 to one of the most specialized facilities on the planet. 1404 01:09:04,734 --> 01:09:07,867 Research Casting International is a world leader 1405 01:09:07,867 --> 01:09:10,266 in assembling dinosaur skeletons. 1406 01:09:11,533 --> 01:09:13,867 They're working on two complete sauropods 1407 01:09:13,867 --> 01:09:15,900 from the Jurassic Mile. 1408 01:09:17,266 --> 01:09:18,367 There you go. 1409 01:09:18,367 --> 01:09:20,600 -Like this? -All right. Tilt towards Jamie a little. 1410 01:09:20,600 --> 01:09:20,840 Yeah. 1411 01:09:20,840 --> 01:09:21,734 Yeah. 1412 01:09:21,734 --> 01:09:23,000 [man] Okay. 1413 01:09:23,000 --> 01:09:25,000 [Ronan] They're destined to become the centerpiece 1414 01:09:25,000 --> 01:09:28,066 of the brand new dinosphere exhibit 1415 01:09:28,066 --> 01:09:30,800 at the Children's Museum of Indianapolis. 1416 01:09:32,700 --> 01:09:35,000 With the bones cleaned and mounted, 1417 01:09:35,000 --> 01:09:37,533 it's the first opportunity for Phil and Victoria 1418 01:09:37,533 --> 01:09:39,734 to examine them properly. 1419 01:09:42,367 --> 01:09:44,433 Oh, wow. 1420 01:09:45,367 --> 01:09:47,333 [Phil] That... that is awesome. 1421 01:09:50,600 --> 01:09:50,840 [Ronan] Phil is looking for the telltale signs 1422 01:09:50,840 --> 01:09:52,967 [Ronan] Phil is looking for the telltale signs 1423 01:09:52,967 --> 01:09:56,533 of careful butchery by an intelligent scavenger. 1424 01:09:57,700 --> 01:10:00,266 [Phil] You get back to the lab and you've removed 1425 01:10:00,266 --> 01:10:02,867 all of this caked dirt and mud. 1426 01:10:02,867 --> 01:10:06,100 You can suddenly see the wood for the trees. 1427 01:10:06,100 --> 01:10:10,367 [Ronan] On the cleaned bones, bite marks are clearly visible. 1428 01:10:10,367 --> 01:10:12,367 [Victoria] The predatory dinosaur tried to bite it 1429 01:10:12,367 --> 01:10:15,000 multiple times, or maybe other predatory dinosaurs 1430 01:10:15,000 --> 01:10:19,066 also tried to take off a little bit of meat as well. 1431 01:10:19,066 --> 01:10:20,840 [Ronan] But the location and nature of these marks 1432 01:10:20,840 --> 01:10:21,367 [Ronan] But the location and nature of these marks 1433 01:10:21,367 --> 01:10:25,634 leaves Phil certain they're not the result of a frenzied kill. 1434 01:10:27,500 --> 01:10:29,734 He thinks they're too measured and precise, 1435 01:10:29,734 --> 01:10:32,967 like the cuts of a butcher's knife. 1436 01:10:32,967 --> 01:10:35,367 [Phil] The animal was deliberately going for the joint capsules. 1437 01:10:35,367 --> 01:10:36,967 It's trying to pop the joint capsules 1438 01:10:36,967 --> 01:10:39,166 with its sharp teeth 'cause those capsules 1439 01:10:39,166 --> 01:10:42,100 are incredibly strong and that... 1440 01:10:42,100 --> 01:10:46,367 that enables the animal then to remove a chunk of tail. 1441 01:10:46,367 --> 01:10:49,600 And that's fascinating. That's not just feeding. 1442 01:10:49,600 --> 01:10:50,840 Feeding would have bite marks all over the vertebrae. 1443 01:10:50,840 --> 01:10:52,500 Feeding would have bite marks all over the vertebrae. 1444 01:10:52,500 --> 01:10:56,734 [Ronan] Phil is convinced these aren't the signs of a killing blow. 1445 01:10:56,734 --> 01:11:00,066 But probably happened long after death. 1446 01:11:00,066 --> 01:11:02,734 [Phil] This fossil shows evidence of a predator. 1447 01:11:02,734 --> 01:11:05,867 But probably from scavenging, we can see 1448 01:11:05,867 --> 01:11:08,634 what is very precise bite marks, 1449 01:11:08,634 --> 01:11:11,367 which were associated with behavior. 1450 01:11:11,367 --> 01:11:13,166 That was really hard to work out in the field, 1451 01:11:13,166 --> 01:11:15,800 but here it's clear as day. 1452 01:11:18,600 --> 01:11:20,840 [Ronan] The team is building a theory. 1453 01:11:20,840 --> 01:11:21,266 [Ronan] The team is building a theory. 1454 01:11:21,266 --> 01:11:24,100 One hundred and fifty million years ago, 1455 01:11:24,100 --> 01:11:25,700 a group of allosauruses 1456 01:11:25,700 --> 01:11:29,867 took advantage of an unmissable scavenging opportunity. 1457 01:11:29,867 --> 01:11:33,867 They expertly picked apart a mountain of free meat, 1458 01:11:33,867 --> 01:11:36,333 left after a sauropod died here. 1459 01:11:37,500 --> 01:11:39,734 But if the apex predator of the Jurassic 1460 01:11:39,734 --> 01:11:43,333 didn't kill the giant herbivore, what did? 1461 01:11:45,367 --> 01:11:47,734 To solve this mystery once and for all, 1462 01:11:47,734 --> 01:11:50,840 the team needs to find evidence of some other cause of death. 1463 01:11:50,840 --> 01:11:52,734 the team needs to find evidence of some other cause of death. 1464 01:11:52,734 --> 01:11:57,266 But with only days left before the site closes down for the winter, 1465 01:11:57,266 --> 01:12:00,533 the tough rock of the badlands is holding them up. 1466 01:12:01,600 --> 01:12:04,700 We have concrete hard rock, where the bones 1467 01:12:04,700 --> 01:12:07,367 have been embedded in some of the toughest rocks 1468 01:12:07,367 --> 01:12:09,100 I've ever come across. 1469 01:12:10,266 --> 01:12:12,433 [Ronan] They throw everything at it. 1470 01:12:14,500 --> 01:12:16,734 [indistinct chatter] 1471 01:12:20,467 --> 01:12:20,840 [Phil] Rock is winning. 1472 01:12:20,840 --> 01:12:21,867 [Phil] Rock is winning. 1473 01:12:21,867 --> 01:12:23,600 But we have another trick up our sleeve, 1474 01:12:23,600 --> 01:12:25,367 and it's a rather large jackhammer 1475 01:12:25,367 --> 01:12:27,867 which we can attach to the front of the bobcat. 1476 01:12:27,867 --> 01:12:29,166 [Ronan] It's a risk. 1477 01:12:29,166 --> 01:12:32,700 Big machinery can destroy fragile bones, 1478 01:12:32,700 --> 01:12:35,266 but it's their only chance to get at the fossils 1479 01:12:35,266 --> 01:12:37,600 beneath this rock and potentially 1480 01:12:37,600 --> 01:12:40,367 to solve the mystery of the dinosaur deaths 1481 01:12:40,367 --> 01:12:43,734 before the season ends and evidence is lost. 1482 01:12:46,367 --> 01:12:50,367 Phil hopes to claw back precious time, 1483 01:12:50,367 --> 01:12:50,840 but his hope doesn't last long. 1484 01:12:50,840 --> 01:12:52,634 but his hope doesn't last long. 1485 01:12:54,533 --> 01:12:56,967 Pieces are shaking off of this thing. 1486 01:12:56,967 --> 01:12:59,867 It looks like it's leaking right here. 1487 01:12:59,867 --> 01:13:01,600 So, we're losing hydraulic fluid. 1488 01:13:01,600 --> 01:13:03,166 Think one of the seals is gone. 1489 01:13:03,166 --> 01:13:05,600 [Ronan] The team now has a big problem. 1490 01:13:05,600 --> 01:13:07,367 Let's call the bobcat place. 1491 01:13:07,367 --> 01:13:09,533 -Oh, yes. -I'll do it now. 1492 01:13:09,533 --> 01:13:12,100 [Ronan] Until a replacement part arrives, 1493 01:13:12,100 --> 01:13:14,734 they'll have to dig by hand. 1494 01:13:23,500 --> 01:13:27,100 In the badlands of Wyoming, a boneyard of giant 1495 01:13:27,100 --> 01:13:34,166 dinosaur fossils is seeing the sky again after 150 million years. 1496 01:13:34,166 --> 01:13:37,634 And a team of world-class paleontologists is racing 1497 01:13:37,634 --> 01:13:40,634 to finally figure out what killed them all. 1498 01:13:42,166 --> 01:13:44,166 After an exhaustive investigation, 1499 01:13:44,166 --> 01:13:46,967 they're running out of time. 1500 01:13:46,967 --> 01:13:49,600 Their dig season is almost over 1501 01:13:49,600 --> 01:13:50,600 Their dig season is almost over 1502 01:13:50,600 --> 01:13:53,533 and a vital piece of heavy machinery has broken. 1503 01:13:54,700 --> 01:13:58,166 Leaking from this thread, which I don't have a way to tighten it. 1504 01:14:01,266 --> 01:14:02,867 [Ronan] They've had an anxious night, 1505 01:14:02,867 --> 01:14:05,433 but there is finally some good news. 1506 01:14:07,100 --> 01:14:08,634 So, a new part. 1507 01:14:08,634 --> 01:14:10,367 [Ronan] The vital replacement seal 1508 01:14:10,367 --> 01:14:12,867 for their jackhammer has arrived. 1509 01:14:12,867 --> 01:14:15,800 We can plug our breaker back up over there 1510 01:14:15,800 --> 01:14:19,166 and get through this really thick piece of sandstone 1511 01:14:19,166 --> 01:14:19,600 that has been causing trouble for us for the past few days. 1512 01:14:19,600 --> 01:14:23,166 that has been causing trouble for us for the past few days. 1513 01:14:23,166 --> 01:14:24,266 [grunting] 1514 01:14:24,266 --> 01:14:25,800 [Ronan] It's a big relief. 1515 01:14:25,800 --> 01:14:29,533 Now the team can get on with building their final case. 1516 01:14:33,266 --> 01:14:36,700 The team has found evidence here of a fast-flowing river 1517 01:14:36,700 --> 01:14:41,867 that may have swept some of the dinosaurs to their death. 1518 01:14:41,867 --> 01:14:45,900 And clues to a deadly infection that could have felled them. 1519 01:14:47,367 --> 01:14:49,600 They've investigated whether there was a standoff 1520 01:14:49,600 --> 01:14:49,867 They've investigated whether there was a standoff 1521 01:14:49,867 --> 01:14:54,433 between giant sauropods and a pack of predatory allosauruses. 1522 01:14:56,166 --> 01:14:57,800 But autopsies have convinced them 1523 01:14:57,800 --> 01:15:01,967 that the herbivores were probably scavenged after death. 1524 01:15:01,967 --> 01:15:04,867 So, with more than a dozen dinosaur deaths 1525 01:15:04,867 --> 01:15:08,166 to account for, how did they die? 1526 01:15:12,700 --> 01:15:15,166 With the hard rock now cleared away, 1527 01:15:15,166 --> 01:15:18,166 Phil is searching for evidence of what could have killed 1528 01:15:18,166 --> 01:15:19,600 the sauropods, if they weren't victims of the Jurassic's 1529 01:15:19,600 --> 01:15:21,634 the sauropods, if they weren't victims of the Jurassic's 1530 01:15:21,634 --> 01:15:24,367 apex predator, allosaurus. 1531 01:15:24,367 --> 01:15:28,166 And he's found a new clue right next to the skeleton 1532 01:15:28,166 --> 01:15:30,800 of one of the giant sauropods. 1533 01:15:30,800 --> 01:15:34,700 Here, a pool of water created ripples in the sand 1534 01:15:34,700 --> 01:15:37,533 150 million years ago. 1535 01:15:39,500 --> 01:15:43,634 At different times in the life of this pond, it dried out. 1536 01:15:43,634 --> 01:15:47,166 And you can see when the water shallowed 1537 01:15:47,166 --> 01:15:49,367 that the wind was blowing the surface of the water 1538 01:15:49,367 --> 01:15:49,600 creating these beautiful ripple marks. 1539 01:15:49,600 --> 01:15:52,066 creating these beautiful ripple marks. 1540 01:15:53,500 --> 01:15:57,533 [Ronan] Phil thinks this pond often shallowed out in the dry season. 1541 01:15:57,533 --> 01:16:00,066 But that in extreme dry seasons, 1542 01:16:00,066 --> 01:16:02,467 something more dramatic happened. 1543 01:16:02,467 --> 01:16:05,333 The pool dried up completely. 1544 01:16:06,600 --> 01:16:09,166 And it looks like the water continued drying up 1545 01:16:09,166 --> 01:16:11,867 to a point where we got a cracked surface, 1546 01:16:11,867 --> 01:16:14,367 literally desiccation cracks. 1547 01:16:14,367 --> 01:16:16,467 [Ronan] For Phil, these faint cracks 1548 01:16:16,467 --> 01:16:18,533 in the mud are a vital clue. 1549 01:16:19,600 --> 01:16:21,367 [Phil] It's such an extreme event, 1550 01:16:21,367 --> 01:16:26,000 it got incredibly hot and dry, and this whole area dried out. 1551 01:16:26,000 --> 01:16:27,734 This animal was looking for the place 1552 01:16:27,734 --> 01:16:30,600 where it knew it could find water and couldn't. 1553 01:16:30,600 --> 01:16:33,734 And it's days ended here in a dried out pond. 1554 01:16:36,066 --> 01:16:38,266 [Ronan] Phil believes he's solved the mystery 1555 01:16:38,266 --> 01:16:42,166 of why so many sauropod skeletons are buried here. 1556 01:16:45,367 --> 01:16:48,266 His theory is that the Jurassic Mile was home 1557 01:16:48,266 --> 01:16:49,600 to a watering hole, where many sauropods passed 1558 01:16:49,600 --> 01:16:52,066 to a watering hole, where many sauropods passed 1559 01:16:52,066 --> 01:16:54,634 on their way between feeding grounds. 1560 01:16:59,734 --> 01:17:03,266 But just like an extreme wet season could flood it, 1561 01:17:03,266 --> 01:17:07,634 an extreme dry season could turn it into a wasteland. 1562 01:17:11,367 --> 01:17:14,367 When that happened, some dinosaurs arrived 1563 01:17:14,367 --> 01:17:19,600 too late for food and water, instead finding only a fetid mud pit. 1564 01:17:19,600 --> 01:17:20,333 too late for food and water, instead finding only a fetid mud pit. 1565 01:17:21,700 --> 01:17:26,000 They succumb to thirst and starvation, dying right here. 1566 01:17:30,800 --> 01:17:32,734 And Phil believes this explains 1567 01:17:32,734 --> 01:17:36,266 why so many allosauruses were here, too. 1568 01:17:36,266 --> 01:17:40,533 The carcass was rotting away and it would have stunk to high heaven, 1569 01:17:40,533 --> 01:17:43,100 and was probably a signal for all predators 1570 01:17:43,100 --> 01:17:45,166 and scavengers around the landscape 1571 01:17:45,166 --> 01:17:47,634 and they'd have come here for a free meal. 1572 01:17:50,500 --> 01:17:54,166 [Ronan] But for at least one allosaurus, whose bones 1573 01:17:54,166 --> 01:17:56,800 lie a few feet from this sauropod, 1574 01:17:56,800 --> 01:18:00,100 this may have been the last meal it ever ate, 1575 01:18:05,367 --> 01:18:08,700 which leaves one final mystery to solve, 1576 01:18:08,700 --> 01:18:11,634 what killed this ferocious predator? 1577 01:18:12,634 --> 01:18:15,433 Jen may have found an answer at last. 1578 01:18:16,467 --> 01:18:19,600 To her expert eye, the bones of this allosaurus 1579 01:18:19,600 --> 01:18:20,000 To her expert eye, the bones of this allosaurus 1580 01:18:20,000 --> 01:18:23,700 reveal something about life in the Jurassic. 1581 01:18:23,700 --> 01:18:28,867 It was incredibly dangerous, even for apex predators. 1582 01:18:28,867 --> 01:18:31,734 They're the kings, if you will, of the Jurassic. 1583 01:18:31,734 --> 01:18:33,967 When you have all these different animals living together, 1584 01:18:33,967 --> 01:18:35,800 you're gonna have different conflicts. 1585 01:18:35,800 --> 01:18:39,066 This is the kind of world that the allosaurus is living in. 1586 01:18:39,066 --> 01:18:41,700 [Ronan] Most allosaurus bones here have scars 1587 01:18:41,700 --> 01:18:45,734 from serious injuries and infections that affected them in life. 1588 01:18:47,800 --> 01:18:49,600 Just as they are for predators today, 1589 01:18:49,600 --> 01:18:50,100 Just as they are for predators today, 1590 01:18:50,100 --> 01:18:55,700 hunting injuries were common and there was always competition for meat. 1591 01:18:55,700 --> 01:18:59,266 Allosauruses tend to be a pretty beat up lot. 1592 01:18:59,266 --> 01:19:01,800 You're dealing with big preys, there's also other 1593 01:19:01,800 --> 01:19:05,500 allosauruses and other meat-eating dinosaurs they have to interact with, 1594 01:19:05,500 --> 01:19:09,166 they have to defend territory, they could probably be fighting over a mate. 1595 01:19:09,166 --> 01:19:10,800 [Ronan] Sometimes, these injuries 1596 01:19:10,800 --> 01:19:13,100 could be very serious. 1597 01:19:13,100 --> 01:19:16,100 The bones already excavated from this allosaurus 1598 01:19:16,100 --> 01:19:19,600 have made her wonder if it may have suffered a broken leg. 1599 01:19:19,600 --> 01:19:19,734 have made her wonder if it may have suffered a broken leg. 1600 01:19:21,266 --> 01:19:24,367 [Jennifer] This is where I saw a split down the femur. 1601 01:19:24,367 --> 01:19:26,967 And so, right on what looks to be maybe a fracture, 1602 01:19:26,967 --> 01:19:30,967 so an injury, didn't look like it got to heal too much. 1603 01:19:30,967 --> 01:19:34,100 It was starting to heal, but it didn't get all the way there. 1604 01:19:35,266 --> 01:19:38,000 [Ronan] With such an injury, this allosaurus 1605 01:19:38,000 --> 01:19:41,100 would have been at a big disadvantage in the hunt, 1606 01:19:41,100 --> 01:19:44,166 or if challenged by another large predator. 1607 01:19:45,700 --> 01:19:47,266 [Jennifer] Probably wasn't gonna be sprinting 1608 01:19:47,266 --> 01:19:48,500 after healthy animals. 1609 01:19:48,500 --> 01:19:49,600 So probably it's scavenging, but it... 1610 01:19:49,600 --> 01:19:50,600 So probably it's scavenging, but it... 1611 01:19:50,600 --> 01:19:52,367 it definitely found a way to... 1612 01:19:52,367 --> 01:19:54,867 to live at least a couple of weeks more. 1613 01:20:01,467 --> 01:20:05,367 [Ronan] Maybe this allosaurus had made its final journey. 1614 01:20:06,467 --> 01:20:09,367 Attracted here to feast, injury, 1615 01:20:09,367 --> 01:20:13,700 mud and ferocious rivals may have proved too much 1616 01:20:13,700 --> 01:20:16,634 and it died right next to its last meal. 1617 01:20:18,367 --> 01:20:19,600 As the season changed and the rains returned, 1618 01:20:19,600 --> 01:20:22,500 As the season changed and the rains returned, 1619 01:20:22,500 --> 01:20:25,166 its remains were lost below the water. 1620 01:20:25,166 --> 01:20:28,100 Predator and prey entombed together 1621 01:20:28,100 --> 01:20:31,433 for 150 million years. 1622 01:20:37,266 --> 01:20:41,266 Jen has found this crucial evidence in the nick of time. 1623 01:20:41,266 --> 01:20:44,100 It's the last day of the summer's dig season. 1624 01:20:47,500 --> 01:20:49,600 Phil and the team are wrapping and protecting any exposed bones. 1625 01:20:49,600 --> 01:20:51,533 Phil and the team are wrapping and protecting any exposed bones. 1626 01:20:54,734 --> 01:20:56,867 [Phil] Don't have it taut. Remember? There should be no... 1627 01:20:56,867 --> 01:20:58,000 Yeah, no tension. 1628 01:20:58,000 --> 01:20:59,967 [Phil] No... no... That's it. No tension. 1629 01:20:59,967 --> 01:21:02,000 [Ronan] Until they return next year, 1630 01:21:02,000 --> 01:21:06,800 they want all evidence to be safe against the harsh Wyoming winter. 1631 01:21:06,800 --> 01:21:08,266 [Phil] You're protecting the fossils 1632 01:21:08,266 --> 01:21:09,634 from the extreme weather conditions 1633 01:21:09,634 --> 01:21:11,166 that persist here in winter, 1634 01:21:11,166 --> 01:21:15,166 can get down to -37 or more, it's pretty terrifying. 1635 01:21:22,000 --> 01:21:24,867 [Ronan] There are still some major finds to cover. 1636 01:21:26,000 --> 01:21:28,333 [Phil] There's so much bone that's been exposed. 1637 01:21:31,266 --> 01:21:34,600 This is the last day, everyone's stressed. 1638 01:21:34,600 --> 01:21:37,166 [Ronan] So, it's all hands on deck. 1639 01:21:37,166 --> 01:21:38,800 [Bill] We just, we want a few longer ones 1640 01:21:38,800 --> 01:21:41,266 just so we can wrap them absolutely all the way around. 1641 01:21:41,266 --> 01:21:42,800 It makes it stronger. 1642 01:21:46,700 --> 01:21:49,600 [Ronan] And with one final push, time is up. 1643 01:21:49,600 --> 01:21:50,734 [Ronan] And with one final push, time is up. 1644 01:22:07,533 --> 01:22:12,800 At the Children's Museum of Indianapolis, 1645 01:22:12,800 --> 01:22:15,000 the completed dinosaur skeletons 1646 01:22:15,000 --> 01:22:19,600 from the Jurassic Mile are finally resurrected after 150 million years. 1647 01:22:19,600 --> 01:22:21,233 from the Jurassic Mile are finally resurrected after 150 million years. 1648 01:22:23,166 --> 01:22:26,467 [Jennifer] Dinosaurs are so bizarre. 1649 01:22:26,467 --> 01:22:28,266 They're the closest things we have to like 1650 01:22:28,266 --> 01:22:30,166 mystical beasts, but they're real. 1651 01:22:31,500 --> 01:22:33,166 [Ronan] For those left in the ground, 1652 01:22:33,166 --> 01:22:36,433 silence will return for another long winter. 1653 01:22:37,467 --> 01:22:39,734 But the team will be back. 1654 01:22:39,734 --> 01:22:42,100 I think the Jurassic Mile will yield 1655 01:22:42,100 --> 01:22:47,867 hundreds of dinosaurs over the next 20, 30, 40 years. 1656 01:22:47,867 --> 01:22:49,600 [Ronan] They may have solved this particular murder mystery. 1657 01:22:49,600 --> 01:22:51,266 [Ronan] They may have solved this particular murder mystery. 1658 01:22:51,266 --> 01:22:56,700 But this extraordinary place has many more secrets to unearth. 1659 01:22:56,700 --> 01:22:59,867 I've been very lucky to chase dinosaurs 1660 01:22:59,867 --> 01:23:01,967 around the globe for the last 30 years, 1661 01:23:01,967 --> 01:23:06,166 but I've never found a site like this one. 1662 01:23:06,166 --> 01:23:10,900 I mean, it... it could keep 100 paleontologists busy for 100 years. 1663 01:23:12,000 --> 01:23:13,800 [Ronan] For many years to come, 1664 01:23:13,800 --> 01:23:16,100 this remarkable site will continue 1665 01:23:16,100 --> 01:23:19,000 to give these scientists a unique window 1666 01:23:19,000 --> 01:23:19,600 into a long lost world. 1667 01:23:19,600 --> 01:23:21,600 into a long lost world. 1668 01:23:21,600 --> 01:23:25,467 The Jurassic Mile is dinosaur country.